REACTION MECHANISM. The concept is used in two basic senses. For complex reactions consisting of several stages, the REACTION MECHANISM is a set of stages as a result of which the starting substances are converted into products. For a simple reaction (elementary reaction, elementary stage), which cannot be decomposed into simpler chemical acts, clarify the MECHANISM OF THE REACTION. means identifying the physical processes that make up the essence of chemical transformation. For one particle (molecule in the ground or excited state, ion, radical, diffusion pair, singlet or triplet radical pair, complex) or two (rarely three) particles (molecules, ions, radicals, radical ions, etc. ), located in certain quantum states, changes in the positions of atomic nuclei and states of electrons constitute the essence of their transformations into other particles with quantum states inherent in these particles. The physical processes under consideration often explicitly include acts of energy transfer from particle to particle. For elementary reactions in solution REACTION MECHANISM p. includes changes in the near solvation shell of the transforming particles.
Hypothetical ideas regarding REACTION MECHANISM. are formed on the basis of available experiments. facts and theoretical results. analysis. New data may lead to changes or refinements of the proposed REACTION MECHANISM, bringing it ever closer to the true one.
Complex reactions. Stoichiometric the equation, as a rule, does not reflect the true REACTION MECHANISM. Thus, the gas-phase thermally activated unbranched chain reaction H 2 + Br 2 2HBr consists of the following simple stages: thermodynamic initiation of Br 2; chain continuation + H 2 HBr + ; + + Br 2 HBr + ; + НВr Н 2 +; open circuit + + Br 2. The rate of the process is described by a complex equation, including the rate constants of all simple stages and the concentrations of the substances Br 2, H 2 and HBr. Another example is nucleophos. substitution at the C atom corresponding to stoichiometric the equation RX + Y - RY+X -, which, depending on the nature of the reagents and the solvent, can follow two different mechanisms S N 2 and S N 1 (see Nucleophilic reactions).
When characterizing the mechanism of a complex reaction, they often point to its main distinguishing feature. feature: ionic REACTION MECHANISM, when the participation of ions in individual stages is most characteristic; radical REACTION MECHANISM r., radical chain, nucleoph. or electric temperature. substitution, etc. Sometimes REACTION MECHANISMr. called by the name of the researcher who proposed and proved it, for example, REACTION MECHANISMr. Nalbandyan - Voevodsky for the interaction of H 2 with O 2, REACTION MECHANISM. Bender for substitution at the carbonyl atom C, etc.
Establishing the mechanism of a complex reaction begins with studying changes in time in the concentrations of starting substances and, if possible, intermediate substances, determining reaction orders for individual reagents under a wide range of varying conditions (temperature, initial partial and total pressures for gas-phase reactions; initial and total concentrations of reagents, nature of the solvent for reactions in solutions). Based on the data obtained, one or more possible reaction schemes are proposed and differential systems are drawn up. equations. When solving these systems using a computer, a distinction is made between direct and inverse problems. In the direct problem, the rate constants and equilibrium constants are separated. simple stages, obtained experimentally or evaluated independently, are set by a computer, which numerically or graphically presents the results of solving a system of equations in the form of kinetic curves of a complex reaction. These curves are then compared with experiments. data. In the inverse problem, which is significantly more complex, the computer, based on the reaction scheme and the entire volume of kinetic information, “gives out” the rate constants of the individual stages. The more complex the kinetic patterns are (changes in the order of reactions, the overshooting of kinetic curves, the appearance of kinks and other features on them), the more opportunities there are by comparing experiments. data and calculation results, discriminate against one scheme or another in search of the true REACTION MECHANISM.
An important role in establishing the REACTION MECHANISM. plays the study of the nature of products and intermediate substances using UV, IR and gamma resonance spectroscopy, EPR, NMR, mass spectrometry, chemical polarization of nuclei, electrochemical methods, etc. Methods are being developed for the production and accumulation of highly active intermediate products: ions, radicals, excited particles with the aim of directly studying their reactivity. To obtain the rate constants of those stages of a complex reaction in which highly active particles participate, it is informative to model these stages under special (“pure”) conditions, for example, by carrying out reactions at low temperatures (up to 100-70 K), in the ion source of a high-speed mass spectrometer pressure, in the cell of an ion cyclotron resonance spectrometer, etc. When studying heterogeneous catalytic reactions, it is important to independently study the adsorption of all substances participating in the reaction on the surface of the catalyst and study the spectra of the adsorbir. particles in the optical and radio frequency ranges, as well as establishing their nature by physical and physical-chemical methods (X-ray and UV photoelectron spectroscopy, Auger spectroscopy, electron energy loss spectroscopy, etc.).
Elementary reactions. To establish the REACTION MECHANISM p. attracted as a theoretical methods (see Quantum chemistry, Dynamics of an elementary act), and numerous experiments. methods. For gas-phase reactions, these are the molecular beam method, high-pressure mass spectrometry, chemical ionization mass spectrometry, ion photodissociation, ion cyclotron resonance, flow afterglow method, laser spectroscopy—selective excitation of individual bonds or atomic groups of a molecule, in including laser-induced fluorescence, intracavity laser spectroscopy, active coherent scattering spectroscopy. To study the REACTION MECHANISM. in condenser environments use methods: EPR, NMR, nuclear quadrupole resonance, chemical polarization of nuclei, gamma resonance spectroscopy, X-ray and photoelectron spectroscopy, reactions with isotope indicators (labeled atoms) and optically active compounds, carrying out reactions at low temperatures and high pressures, spectroscopy (UV, IR and Raman scattering), chemiluminescent methods, polarography, kinetic methods for studying fast and ultrafast reactions (pulsed photolysis, methods of continuous and stopped jet, temperature jump, pressure jump, etc.). Using these methods, knowing the nature and structure of the initial and final particles, it is possible to establish with a certain degree of certainty the structure of the transition state (see Activated complex theory), find out how the initial molecule is deformed or how the initial particles come closer together, if there are several of them (changes in interatomic distances, angles between bonds), how the polarizability of chemical bonds changes, whether ionic, free radical, triplet or other active forms are formed, whether the electronic states of molecules, atoms, and ions change during the reaction.
For example, quantum chemical calculations indicate that during the bimolecular reaction between HNCO and CH 3 OH, as the distance between the C atom of the -NCO group and the O atom of the alcohol decreases from 30 to 10 nm, the charges q N and q O on the N and O atoms change group -N=C=O and the occupancy of bonds P N=C and P C=0. A sharper rate of change in charge on N (Dq N = 0.47) compared to the change in charge on O (Dq O = 0.18), as well as a decrease in the population of the N=C bond (DP N=C = 0.58) in comparison with the C=O bond (DP C =O = 0.35) allows us to conclude that the hydroxyl CH 3 OH preferentially attaches to the N=C bond with the formation of the urethane group -NHC(O)OCH 3 .
In simple cases, quantum chemistry methods make it possible to calculate the potential energy surface (PES) along which the reaction occurs. In more complex cases, it is possible to establish only one of the PES profiles, which displays the type of reaction coordinate. Modern calculations and experiments. methods make it possible to establish a more complex course of elementary reactions than was previously imagined. For example, reactions of the type, where X - F or I, can occur with the participation of different electronic states of particles:
When studying elementary reactions of even the simplest particles using the mol. beams, the presence of several reaction channels with their own enthalpies DH 0 and cross sections is revealed:
It has been established that the reaction He + + O 2 He + O + O + occurs simultaneously through six channels with the formation of an O atom and an O + ion in different electronic states. The same results were obtained using the ion cyclotron resonance method:
Investigating the intensity pattern of angular scattering of products in mol. beams, you can get a direct microscopic peak. information about the details of the pier. interactions. For example, the K + I 2 reaction proceeds according to the disruption mechanism, when each K atom incident on the I 2 molecule picks up one I atom, moving in the forward direction, without having a strong effect on the second atom I. In the limiting case of such a REACTION MECHANISM p. atom I acts as an “observer”, since its momentum after the reaction event remains the same as before it (MR type “observer-disruption”). However, the behavior of the KI product in the K + CH 3 I reaction differs significantly from that described for the K + I 2 reaction: the K + CH 3 I reaction occurs when the partner particles are so close together that the KI product should “ricochet”, as if solids were colliding balls (mechanism of measurement and cocheting). The approach of a flying K atom to a CH 3 I molecule is most effective in the K...I-CH 3 configuration, i.e. from the iodine end of the molecule (“orientation effect of the target molecule”). For the reaction between an alkali metal atom M and a halogen molecule X 2, the so-called harpoon mechanism is postulated, in which an electron jumps from the M atom to the X 2 molecule with the formation of particles M + and X - 2, which, moving rapidly towards each other, interact with the formation of a vibrationally excited product M + X - . Often a bimolecular reaction occurs in two "microscopic" reactions. stage with preliminary formation of intermediate complex:
products. For example, the reactions Cs + SF 6, Cs + + RbCl occur through the formation of a long-lived complex of colliding particles. This indicates the existence of a deep “hole” along the reaction path in the PES. The formation of long-lived intermediate complexes for reactions in solution is especially characteristic. For example, the reaction of formamide with a hydroxide ion leads to the formation of tetrahedral intermediates. complex:
In the gas phase, stage 1 has no energy. barrier, stage 2 has such a barrier; in water, both stages have approximately the same energy. barriers. In this case, we should talk about two elementary reactions. Transformation tetrahedral. complex into products occurs as a “concert reaction”, during which an N-H bond is formed simultaneously (in one act) and the O-H and C-N bonds are broken.
In a detailed analysis, the REACTION MECHANISM p. Sometimes there is a need to explicitly consider acts of energy transfer between molecules or from the same energy. levels of the molecule to others. This is especially evident in gas-phase reactions. For example, the monomolecular reaction AB A + B can only occur if the AB molecule has internal. energy greater than the activation energy of the reaction. Such active molecules AB* are formed as a result of inelastic collisions of AB with surrounding molecules X (thermodynamic activation), as well as during irradiation with light or electron impact. A thermodynamically elementary reaction, along with the chemical transformation itself (rate constant k*), should include acts of activation and deactivation (rate constants k a and k d):
Due to the increase in the concentration of X with increasing pressure, this reaction is second order at low pressures and first order at high pressures (see Monomolecular reactions). Strictly speaking, each of the above reactions must be described by a system of kinetic equations corresponding to the microscope. acts involving particles with different energy populations. levels.
The transfer of energy from vibrational to electronic levels of a molecule is an important stage, for example, during the interaction in the ground electronic state of 2 P 3/2 with a vibrationally excited HCl molecule (vibrational quantum number u = 1):
Channel (a) of the reaction leads to a resonant electronic-vibrational exchange of energy, channel (b) leads to purely vibrational deactivation of the molecule. In some cases, REACTION MECHANISM. includes explicitly the removal of energy from the particle formed in the reaction. Thus, the recombination of atoms and radicals, for example RR, can only be carried out as a three-molecular reaction with the participation of a third particle X that removes energy, since otherwise the energy released during the reaction will lead to the dissociation of the resulting RR molecule ( ++ XRR + X*) . The rate of such a reaction is proportional to the square of the concentration of radicals and the total pressure. In the case of recombination of polyatomic radicals, the reaction energy is distributed over many degrees of freedom and the resulting molecule acquires stability and releases excess energy during subsequent collisions with other molecules. Pulsed IR laser photochemistry makes it possible to experimentally solve many subtle issues of energy transfer between molecules and between different degrees of freedom within a molecule.
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The process of understanding speech is not a mirror image of the process of composing a separate statement or an entire text, but is always the transformation of a given statement into abbreviated semantic schemes at the level of internal speech, which can then again be expanded into statements (42, 91). The process of understanding speech is the selection of essential points or essential meaning from the flow of information. The process that is usually called speech understanding, pointed out L.S. Vygotsky, “there is something more and something different than performing a reaction to a sound signal.” Understanding speech also includes the active use of speech. L.S. Vygotsky believed that the semantic side of speech, understanding, develops from the whole to the part, from sentence to word, and the external side of speech, its production, goes from word to sentence.
Understanding is defined in psychology as deciphering the general meaning that stands behind the directly perceived speech (sound) stream; it is the process of converting the actual content of perceived speech into the meaning behind it.
For example, the meaning of the phrase “It’s cold!” may vary depending on the “non-speech context” in which it is expressed and by whom. If this is a mother’s address to her child, then he can understand her words as advice to dress warmer. If this is said by someone in the room and is accompanied by a gesture towards the open window, the phrase can be understood as a request to close the window. The same phrase, expressed by one of the participants in the children's game “cold - hot,” has a completely different meaning.
In the course of understanding, the listener (recipient) establishes semantic connections between words, which together constitute the semantic content of a given utterance. As a result of comprehension, the listener may come to understand or misunderstand the semantic content of the statement. It is important to note that the process of understanding itself, from a psychological point of view, is characterized by varying depth and accuracy (30, 86).
According to the theoretical concepts of A.A. Brudny and L.S. Tsvetkova (30, 244), the initial, most general level of understanding consists of understanding only the main subject of the statement, i.e., what is being discussed. At this level, the listener can only say what was said to him, but cannot reproduce the content of what was said. The semantic content of what is heard serves as a background against which the recipient can determine the main subject of the statement.
The second level – the level of understanding the semantic content – is determined by understanding the entire course of presentation of the speaker’s or writer’s thoughts, the course of its development and argumentation. It is characterized by understanding not only what was said, but also what was said (i.e., the rheme of the utterance).
The highest level is determined by understanding not only what was said, but also why, why (i.e., for what purpose). If necessary, it is also clear with what linguistic means the speaker expressed his thought. Such penetration into the semantic content of speech allows the listener to understand the motives of the speaker’s speech, to understand everything that he means, the internal logic of his statement. This level of understanding also includes an assessment of the linguistic means of expression used by the speaker or writer.
Reaction I
Reaction (from pe... (See Re...) and lat. actio - action)
2) Experimental research through chemical, physical or biological influence, creating certain conditions (for example, Erythrocyte sedimentation reaction). political, resistance to social progress; a political regime established to preserve and strengthen obsolete social orders. R. usually manifests itself in the fight against the revolutionary movement, in the suppression of democratic rights and freedoms, in the persecution of progressive political and public figures, representatives of culture, mass terror and violence, in racial and national discrimination (See Discrimination), in aggressive foreign policy. The extreme form of R. is fascism. A reactionary is an adherent of political revolution, a retrograde, an enemy of social, cultural, and scientific progress. in psychology, an act of behavior that occurs in response to a certain influence, Stimulus; voluntary movement mediated by a task and occurring in response to the presentation of a signal. The need to study arbitrary reflexivity arose after they discovered that astronomers who detect the moment a star passes through a meridian give different readings. F. Bessel, who discovered this phenomenon, conducted an experiment (1823) in which he measured the time a person reacted to stimuli. Measuring the speed, intensity, and form of R. created psychometry as a branch of psychology with a special research method - the R. method (F. Donders, Denmark; W. Wundt, L. Lange, N. N. Lange). In Soviet psychology, the study of reactions was carried out by K. N. Kornilov, the founder of reactology (See Reactology). There are two main types of reactions: simple, when a person immediately responds to one pre-known signal with movement (motor and sensory R.), and complex, when, upon random presentation of different signals, a person responds to only one of them (R. discrimination) or for everything, but with different movements (R. choice). The study of R. made it possible to formulate a number of laws for applied psychology, for example, Hick’s law: R.’s time increases with the number of stimuli offered for discrimination. Lit.: Wundt W., Fundamentals of physiological psychology, in. 1-16, St. Petersburg. 1908-14; Engineering psychology abroad. Sat. Art., trans. from English, M., 1967, p. 408-24. See also lit. at Art. Reactology. V. I. Maksimenko.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
Synonyms:See what “Reaction” is in other dictionaries:
- (French from Latin reagere to counteract). 1) in chemistry, the action of one body on another, as well as external phenomena accompanying this action. 2) in a figurative meaning: opposition. 3) in physics: counteraction, resistance of a body to which... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
reaction- and, f. reaction, German Reaktion 1. Action, behavior that occurs in response to one or another influence. BAS 1. From somewhere suddenly a dress of a new French cut appeared to everyone, a l incroyable, which was sharp and even to the point of caricature... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language
REACTION, reactions, women. (lat. reactio) (book). 1. units only Politics, a state political regime that returns and protects the old order by fighting the revolutionary movement and manifestations of all progress (political). After… … Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary
reaction- (in psychology) (from Lat. re against, actio action) any response of the body to a change in the external or internal environment from the biochemical R. of an individual cell to a conditioned reflex. Brief psychological dictionary. Rostov on Don: “PHOENIX”.... ... Great psychological encyclopedia
reaction- – interaction process. Dictionary of analytical chemistry neutralization reaction exchange reaction redox reactions ... Chemical terms
REACTION, and, women. 1. see react. 2. The transformation of some substances into others (chemical reaction) or the transformation of atomic nuclei due to their interaction with other elementary particles (nuclear reaction). Tsepnaya r. (self-developing process... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
Cm … Synonym dictionary
- (reaction) A change in the trend of market development as a result of excessive sales in conditions of deteriorating market conditions (when some buyers are attracted by low prices) or excessive purchases in conditions of improving market conditions (when some ... ... Dictionary of business terms
1. REACTION, and; and. [from lat. re against and actio action] 1. to React. R. of the body in the cold. R. eyes to the light. R. spectators. R. against the actions of management. 2. only units. A sharp change in well-being, decline, weakness after exertion. What… … encyclopedic Dictionary
REACTION- (from re... and lat. actio action), 1) in autecology, the body’s response to environmental irritations (actions). For example, an organism may be thermophilic (with respect to temperature) or psychrophilic (with respect to moisture); 2) in synecology... ... Ecological dictionary
- (from re... and Latin actio action), action, state, process that arises in response to any influence... Modern encyclopedia
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In Carl Rogers' client-centered therapy and Heinz Kohut's psychoanalytic self-psychology, empathy plays a key role. Rogers considered empathy to be the fundamental attitude of the therapist in the therapeutic relationship and a key condition for changing the client's personality. Kohut defended the position that the main tool in psychoanalytic research is the analyst's empathy. In addition, Kohut placed the empathic responsiveness of the child's environment at the center of his theory of narcissistic self development. Thanks to their influence, empathy was recognized by most therapeutic schools as a fundamental skill of the therapist necessary for creating a therapeutic climate. This article will examine various ideas about the nature of empathy and its role in the therapeutic process, accumulated primarily within the client-centered and psychoanalytic traditions.
Empathy is a complex phenomenon that is difficult to define. In this regard, it makes sense to start with a definition that is shared by most authors. A starting point, in our opinion, can be Mead's (1934) assertion that empathy presupposes the ability to take the position of another. In other words, empathy involves accepting the role of another and understanding the feelings, thoughts and attitudes of another person.
To figuratively represent the act of empathy, metaphorical descriptions such as the ability to “walk in your shoes,” “get into someone else’s shoes,” or “see a situation through the eyes of” another are often used. These metaphors do contain an important element of the empathic process, namely sharing the internal experience of another person. However, empathy is not simply identification with the experience of another individual. Consider a simple example: a patient begins to cry. What the therapist directly observes are tears and shortness of breath, indicating a lump in the throat. The therapist compares these signals with his own similar experiences. Thus, the therapist comes to a hypothesis about the patient's emotional state. Together with the patient, the therapist experiences some pain and sadness, but this does not mean that he is in fusion with him. The therapist only temporarily experiences these feelings. At the same time, he realizes that these experiences relate to the patient, which allows him to maintain some distance from them. In other words, the therapist not only finds experiences in himself that seem similar to what he observes in the patient, but also makes adjustments for the divergence of experience. The context of the therapist's experience, even very similar to the patient's experience, must always be supplemented by the circumstances of the patient's life situation and the characteristics of his subjective perception.
Following the statement that empathy implies understanding the inner world of another person, the question arises: “Does this mean the phenomenological world of a person, that is, the world that he himself creates? Or is it about understanding based on the psychological interpretation of the inner world of a person - that is, the world who is human could know if he were more fully aware of his experiences and motives?" (Warner, 1999, Warner's italics). To answer this question, let us take a closer look at the phenomenological and psychoanalytic approach to understanding the nature of empathy and its role in the therapeutic process.
Customer-centered point of view
As is known, the basic position of Rogers' theory of personality is that a person's thoughts, feelings and behavior are motivated and directed by a constructive force, namely the innate tendency of the organism to actualize. Personality disorders arise as a result of introjections of conditional acceptance from parents and other significant others. These introjections of conditional attitude create a discrepancy between the organismic experience and the self-concept. When the self finds itself under the pressure of value conditions, a person becomes anxious and vulnerable (Bozarth, 1999).
Accordingly, the goal of the therapeutic relationship is to correct this state of affairs. As part of the gradually unfolding therapeutic process, the therapist becomes a new significant other for the client, and his unconditional acceptance, empathy and authenticity create the conditions for the actualization of the client's organismic experiences and the internal reorganization of his self-concept.
Rogers' most famous definition of empathy is as follows: empathy is the ability to step into the shoes of another, to perceive the internal coordinate system of another from within, as if the therapist were this other, but without losing the “as if” condition. In other words, from a client-centered point of view, empathy is the process of contacting the inner world of another through imagination, tuning into feeling and comprehending the nuances of his experience and personal meaning.
Rogers describes the therapist's task as follows: "You are a person's trusted companion on the journey through his inner world, his point of support, pointing out possible meanings in his experience, you help him experience these meanings more fully and move deeper into them. To be with another, Thus, it means that you put aside your own views and values for a while in order to enter someone else's world without the burden of prejudice.In a sense, it means that you put aside your own Self... Empathy involves entering the private world of the other's ideas... being sensitive at every moment to the change in experienced meanings that flow in the other... which he is barely aware of, but without attempting to reveal completely unconscious feelings" (Rogers, 1980).
The therapist's empathic understanding is aimed at achieving self-acceptance and trust in the client's own inner experiences, which gradually allows them to break the psychological isolation they feel. To facilitate this process, the client-centered therapist strives to help the client find his or her own inner voice. The therapist does not show the client the path, but rather creates the conditions for him to understand his subjective world, provides the client with support and care so that he does not abandon the path if something begins to frighten him.
Psychoanalytic point of view
Supporters of the psychoanalytic tradition see the role of the therapist primarily as one of uncovering, conveying, and helping the patient to assimilate material that was outside his awareness, so they generally gravitate towards the second vision of the term "empathy." Freud started this idea with his comment that the empathic connection can allow the analyst to experience within himself the associations and material of the primary process that is blocked from the patient's awareness. Influenced by this idea, Olinick (1969) even called empathy “regressive openness and receptivity” as well as “regression in the service of another.”
The concept of an “analyzing instrument,” in my opinion, is one of the options for the subsequent development of this idea of Freud. "Analyzing tool is a concept introduced by Isakover to denote the joint participation of the analysand and the analyst in the analytical situation; such a union is considered as a unique working tool used for the analytical process... The purpose of such a combined activity is to achieve optimal regression of the patient's ego, to allow the analyst to see the unconscious analysand and react accordingly, both consciously and unconsciously. If the analyst and the analysand manage to achieve a comparable level (but not equivalent) of a state of partial ego regression (somewhat reminiscent of a state of slumber), then a variety of involuntary thoughts, images become available to each of them and perception. An important factor in the functioning of the analyst is his ability to empathize. The thoughts, feelings and perceptions associated with the analytic situation communicated to the patient are often complemented by him, which facilitates the identification, understanding and explanation of the constellations of his fantasies and memories" (Moore and Fine , 2000). Isakover believed that central to creative listening is the analyst's ability to enter a mental state consistent with the patient's level of regression. “Without regression on both sides of the couch, the analytic process is not possible, just as without achieving a state of consistent regression, the analyst is unable to perceive the elements of fantasy, memory and imagination that provide him with access to the patient’s unconscious” (Jacobs, 1992). At the same time, Isakover considered introspection to be the core of the analyst’s analyzing tool. In his article on the role of supervision in analytic training, he wrote that he saw its main task as developing "the analyst's capacity for self-observation at the same time as he observes and listens to his patient" (Isakower, 1992).
A similar idea, emphasizing the importance of the analyst's receptivity, was expressed by Reik in his famous idea that the analyst should listen to the patient with a "third ear." "One of the abilities of the third ear is that it works in two ways: it can perceive what other people do not say, but only feel and think, and can be turned inward. It can hear voices coming from within the Self that are otherwise inaudible because they are drowned out by the noise of our conscious thought process (cited in Thome and Kähele, 1996).
Many psychoanalytic authors use the concept of identification to explain empathy. In this case, its partial or trial nature is usually emphasized. According to Greenson, the difference is that identification is a largely unconscious and long-term process, while empathy is preconscious and temporary. “The purpose of identification is to overcome anxiety, guilt, or loss of an object, while empathy is used for understanding” (Greenson, 1960). Greenson also noted that since empathy involves sharing the patient's experience, participating temporarily and partially in it, that is, immersion in the patient's emotional experiences, it implies a separateness in the functioning of the analyst's ego. In other words, in this process the analyst oscillates between the positions of participant and observer.
In a 1926 paper, Deitch was the first to point out that “in empathy the analyst can identify not only with the patient, but also with his objects” (cited in Beres & Arloy, 1974). This idea was further developed in the theory of object relations, in particular in the concept of projective and introjective identification. It is beyond the scope of this article to discuss this concept in detail; An illustration of the connection between projective identification and empathy can be served by the following quote: “The therapist’s awareness and consideration of his own state - due to the fact that it is directly related to the projected aspects of the patient’s inner world (aspects of the Self and internal objects) and was caused by him through pressure during interaction - becomes the analyst's primary "tool" in empathic understanding of the patient. Awareness and exploration of one's own state, whether consistent or complementary with aspects of the self and internal objects of the patient, is the best means of achieving empathic understanding. It is not so much entry in the position of another, how much hit into it due to the projection of the other and the pressure exerted during the interaction (projective identification)" (Eagle, & Wolitzky, 1999, Eagle and Wolitzky's italics).
According to Beres and Arloy (1974), empathy requires the ability to maintain stable self and object representations. The main idea of their work was that the degree of the analyst's empathic ability rests on his ability to be subjected to the stimulating influence of the patient's unconscious fantasy, when the analyst himself is not yet aware of the existence and nature of the patient's unconscious fantasy. They attached particular importance to the role of “signal affects” in the analyst, which arise as a result of short-term identifications with the patient. In addition, Beres and Arlow emphasized the fact that signal affect in the analyst often acts as a clue to the patient's motivation and fantasy. “Clinical observations indicate that this signal predicts the emergence of an unconscious fantasy, and the quality of affect corresponds to the nature of this fantasy” (Beres & Arloy, 1974).
To Kohut we owe two views on empathy. First of all, Kohut emphasized empathy as a way of observing and collecting data. This idea is clearly expressed in his definition of psychoanalysis as a discipline that bases its observations on introspection and empathy (transformative introspection) (Kohut, 2000). In his opinion, empathy is nothing more than “observation close to experience.” Kohut believed that empathy allows the therapist to experience the experience of another without losing the ability to objectively assess the other's mental states.
In addition, Kohut considered empathy to be a universal developmental need. The infant's experience of empathic mirroring of a caregiver is a necessary component in the development of a coherent self and, conversely, traumatic failures in the provision of empathic mirroring play a critical causal role in the development of defects and pathology of the self (see Kohut, 2003). Concepts such as mother-infant attunement (Stern, 1985; Beebe & Lachmann, 1988) and responsiveness (Ainsworth, 1974; Thoman, 1978) are, although not identical, highly relevant concepts that have been developed for empathy. developmental psychologists as a result of observing mother-infant interactions.
Empathy in therapeutic communication
In considering the role of empathy in the therapeutic interaction, I would like to begin with Barrett-Lennard's (1981) description of the empathic response cycle, which includes the following phases:
Preconditions phase. The therapist has an empathic attitude towards the client who expresses his experience in one way or another. This stage involves active openness on the part of the therapist to the client's experience of the self and the external world.
Empathic Resonance Phase. The conditions of the preliminary phase make the next step potentially possible, in which the listener enters into emotional resonance (tunes in on the same wavelength) with the client’s experiences and personal meanings, which are activated in his consciousness. Resonating can be defined as the therapist turning inward, that is, to the feelings, images, memories, meanings that arise in response to what he sees, hears, feels together with the client.
Empathy Expression Phase. This phase involves the therapist expressing an empathic response. Empathy includes not only the ability to understand current feelings, but also the verbal ability to convey your understanding in language that is clear to the client. An empathic response can be expressed intentionally or involuntarily, verbally and through nonverbal cues.
Empathy Gaining Phase. The transfer of empathy enables the final stage of the empathic response process. Adequate empathy gives the client a feeling that he has been heard, understood in one or another personally significant area of internal experience, which usually leads to emotional relief and finding meaning.
Feedback phase. At this stage, the client verbally or nonverbally demonstrates the effect of the therapist's empathy. If the therapist's empathic response is adequate, it leads to positive consequences, such as therapeutic silence or deepening of the process. An inappropriate empathic response by the therapist may result in the client seeking to communicate his feelings more clearly, and a completely inappropriate response by the therapist may even lead to negative consequences, such as feelings of hopelessness, loneliness, or aggression.
Barrett-Lennard notes that in a real session, the highlighted phases may be difficult to distinguish. “With successful empathic listening, one empathic cycle, which includes identified stages, is replaced by another and so on, but with careful observation, here too it is possible to see signs of phase changes” (Barrett-Lennard, 1981).
Let us now use Barrett-Lennard's sequence to examine the empathic process in more detail. The preconditioning phase presupposes an empathic attitude on the part of the therapist towards the patient who is expressing his experience in one way or another. A serious test for the therapist's empathic attitude can be a patient who is only partially, implicitly, or very confused in expressing his experiences. In this very difficult situation, the therapist must be able to refrain from making hasty judgments. “The therapist must be able to tolerate a state of not knowing and be willing to experience ambiguity and uncertainty” (Vanaerschot, 1999). Let's imagine a situation: a therapist listens to a patient, but does not understand what he is trying to convey to him. At the same time, the patient may feel that he cannot grasp and clearly express his experiences. As a rule, this moment causes some concern for both participants in the dialogue. In this situation of jointly experienced uncertainty and ambiguity, the patient may explicitly or implicitly turn to the therapist with the question: “Is what I am saying clear?” At this moment, the patient seeks to share his difficulty in articulating the meaning he vaguely senses. An adequate response from the therapist, verbally or non-verbally demonstrating recognition and understanding of the complexity of the current moment and, at the same time, a willingness to remain in a state of not knowing, acts as the initial moment of seeking contact, preceding the next step - establishing empathic resonance.
The empathic resonance phase includes not only tuning into the same wavelength with the patient, but also understanding those feelings, images and ideas that arise in response to what he sees, hears, and feels while being with the patient. "The therapist generates hypotheses about the client's internal experience; these hypotheses are the result of a series of comparisons between the client's verbal messages and nonverbal signals, as well as internal referents that the therapist has at his disposal. These internal referents, namely, experiences similar to the patient's experience, as well as knowledge gleaned from literature, film, personal psychotherapy, and theory of psychopathology act as internal resources available for the process of relating to the patient's phenomenological world" (Vanaerschot, 1999). As a result of both cognitive processing and intuitive choice, the therapist settles on a particular message that at that moment seems most true, appropriate and timely. The therapist's intention to express understanding and human concern begins the next phase, namely the phase of expressing empathy.
Empathic communication involves the ability to transform an understanding of the patient’s mental life into a response through which the therapist can share his understanding with him. The ability to correctly (clearly, concisely, figuratively, etc.) and adequately to the therapeutic situation (that is, in a timely manner, taking into account the context and therapeutic tasks) to formulate an empathic response is a complex task that includes communication and conceptualization skills.
The therapist's empathic response must be coordinated on a verbal and nonverbal level. The congruence between the verbal message and the therapist's nonverbal response confirms and reinforces what he has said. However, the therapist's nonverbal behavior may also negate his verbal message and, as a result, confuse the patient. Don't forget that when words and nonverbal cues contradict each other, people believe body language more.
The therapist's matching of his intention and the form of intervention is another important element of empathic communication. Choosing the content and form of an empathic response requires the therapist to be aware of his intentions, that is, to understand what he wants to achieve and formulate his interventions in accordance with these goals.
The therapist's delivery of an empathic message marks the transition to the final stage of the empathic cycle. The patient's willingness to accept the therapist's accurate empathy and use it for therapeutic advancement, as well as the ability to tolerate and respond adaptively to failed attempts at empathic communication on the part of the therapist, are, in my view, the key contribution on the part of the patient to the effectiveness of the therapeutic interaction.
The therapist's display of empathy does not always lead to the desired goal. Rogers pointed out an important condition for therapeutic communication - the patient's ability to perceive the therapist's empathy, which he called openness to new experience. Since empathy is a two-way relationship, the therapist's ability to express empathy depends significantly on the patient's willingness to allow another into his inner world. “Some individuals, because of their fragile self-coherence, find it extremely difficult to tolerate an empathic response from another” (MacIsaac, 1999). "There are patients who consciously or unconsciously want to remain misunderstood; they are afraid of being understood because it threatens them with destruction, absorption or exposure" (Greenson, 1960). The intimacy gained through empathy can revive the hidden experience of the past, inspire hope for the satisfaction of previously rejected developmental needs, but at the same time frighten the person with a repetition of the experience of rejection, loss and punishment. In other words, empathy has the potential to heal a wounded soul, but the condition for such healing is the painful awakening and processing of problematic, conflictual or traumatic experiences of the past, which explains reactions of resistance. Tehke draws our attention to the fact that sometimes unexpected negative reactions are encountered on the part of the patient after successfully sharing empathic experience and understanding. “Such reactions tend to occur after a particularly “good hour,” when the analyst remains in an elevated mood, comparable to a parent experiencing himself as good, caring and understanding towards his child, who will now cooperate joyfully and gratefully with him” ( Tehke, 2001). MacIsaac notes that the ability to distinguish between a patient's response to the therapist's inaccurate empathy and the patient's inability to tolerate accurate empathy comes with clinical experience (MacIsaac, 1999).
Rogers consistently emphasized that all the therapist's empathic responses are essentially exploratory, involving the client asking, "Is this right?" Therefore, it is extremely important from a clinical point of view how the patient responds to the therapist's empathic messages. We find some guidelines for assessing the patient's reactions in Gendlin's guide to absolute listening:
"A sign of the correctness of empathic reactions can be silence and noticeable satisfaction of the client, which is often accompanied by relaxation of the whole body and deep breathing. Such moments occur from time to time, which are usually followed by further steps in the therapeutic exploration. A more subtle sign is the familiar feeling to all of us, when we tried to convey something to another and finally succeeded - the feeling that we have nothing more to add. While a person is unfolding the idea, there is tension, holding back the breath, and when the essence is finally expressed and clearly understood by others, relaxation occurs, similar to a deep exhalation. It is important to accept such moments of silence (which sometimes seem too long), do not destroy them by speaking.In such moments, a person experiences inner bodily peace, which allows other important things to rise.
How do you know when you've made a wrong move and what to do about it? If a person says similar things over and over again, it means that he feels that you have not yet understood him. Notice how the client's words differ from what you said. If you don't feel the difference, then express your understanding again and add to this: "But that's not all, or not entirely true, right?" Another sign of a wrong step may be the client's nonverbal reaction. So, in response to your words, the client’s face may become confused, tense, and impenetrable. This indicates an attempt to understand you. Apparently you took the wrong step, did not understand something, or brought something in... If the client changed the topic of conversation (especially to an abstract or unimportant topic), this means that he gave up hope of conveying a personally significant topic to you. At this point, you can interrupt him and say something like: "I'm still with what you were trying to say about... I didn't quite understand what you said, but I'd like to understand." Then say only the part you are sure of and ask the person to continue from there. After a while, you will understand what the person meant, perhaps on the third or fourth try" (Gendlin, 1978).
When assessing a patient's feedback, consideration should be given to the patient's ability to forgive the therapist's empathic failures. Thus, Greenberg and Elliott noted that sometimes clients are quite satisfied that the therapist is trying to understand them, perceiving his inaccurate attempts to reflect their experiences as empathic due to their intention (Greenberg & Elliot, 1999). However, one should not lose sight of the fact that admitting negative feelings towards the therapist may be difficult for the patient because he needs the therapist. Patients may hide their reactions out of respect for the therapist's authority and fear of retaliation, so patient feedback is often implicit.
Assessing the outcome of empathy and using the patient's response as feedback is both the final point in the empathic response cycle and the point at which a new empathic act begins. The therapist's empathic response acts as a way of tuning into the patient's experiences. The patient's response to the intervention allows the therapist to "tailor" his own experience and more accurately tune into the patient's experience, thereby creating the basis for accurate empathy.
As an example that somewhat illustrates the stages of the empathic process, I would like to quote the following excerpt from Gendlin's article:
One of my clients once told me that he would like to know where in the hospital they hide the very electronic machine that makes people come back here. In his opinion, it is easy to prove that such a machine exists, since how else can one explain the fact that patients with a free regime voluntarily return to the hospital.
I could, of course, begin to prove to him that no machine exists, that if there were one, I would certainly know about it, and does he really not trust me, that he is simply hallucinating. I could start a conversation about his feelings: they say, he just doesn’t like it in the hospital and therefore he can’t understand how someone can come here of their own free will. But let's ask ourselves, what is the customer's holistic experience at the moment when he talks about this car? What is the “pre-conceptual” or “sensory” meaning from which these strange words come? Of course, I couldn't know this. But I wanted to somehow respond to this meaning. Therefore, my answer to the question was: “Have you felt any influence on yourself from this machine you are talking about?” “Of course I felt it!” - he exclaimed and began to talk about how the machine makes him “not himself.” I perceived this phrase as a kind of message about the content of the internal experience to which my words were addressed... Further, the client told me that this feeling of “unlike himself” appeared after his parents moved to the village and he had to travel by bus many miles across a snow-covered plain. Of course, one could doubt that this one event could have caused him to feel alienated from himself. But feeling that this episode was just one fragment from a large series of memories where there was a feeling of “not being myself,” I imagined an endless, gloomy journey on a snow-covered bus, every day, year after year, and seemed to understand his feeling of being cut off from everyone he knew was lost there, in the distance, in the wilderness, among the snow drifts. I thought that he was now reliving all these years again, and I said something to him about that road on the bus, about the feeling of being cut off, and these words became a new means of mutual understanding for us. After that, he also began to use the expression “feeling cut off.” Perhaps I named the exact expression for his feeling, but what is more important here is that I addressed the entire set of meanings and ideas felt by the client, the entire process of experiencing that took place in him during his story, and did not relate only to his narration like a verbal message. By doing so, one can, albeit with stumbling blocks at every step, gradually achieve meaningful communication, even if the client's statements are strange and bizarre or superficial and trivial (Gendlin, 1993). 3)
In concluding the consideration of the role of empathy in therapeutic communication, I would like to present several ideas that, in my opinion, are important for psychotherapeutic practice.
It is generally accepted that therapist empathy contributes to building a collaborative relationship between therapist and patient. Since therapeutic empathy presupposes respect for the patient’s internal frame of reference and implies the need for a confirmation reaction on his part, it is logical to conclude that its direct consequence will also be the sharing of power in the therapeutic relationship. Is it really? There are different opinions on this matter. Proponents of equality in the therapeutic relationship and therapist self-disclosure answer in the affirmative. There are those who, although they share the opinion about the importance of cooperation and a certain kind of partnership in the therapeutic dyad, still believe that intimacy (that is, the risk of expressing this need) in psychotherapy is, at least for the most part, one-sided. Equality is possible in the therapeutic relationship to about the same extent as it is in the parent-child relationship—a view that reminds us of the role of transference in the therapeutic process. Clearly, the therapist's access to the patient's private information through empathy acts as a source of power and influence in the therapeutic relationship. At the same time, the therapist's consistent empathy serves as a kind of guarantee, providing the patient with the belief that the consequence of his openness to the therapist's empathy will be to receive care from him, and not to abuse the power given to him.
Another important issue that is directly related to the role of empathy in therapeutic communication is the patient’s critical attitude towards himself and his experience. Softening the patient’s critical attitude towards his own experiences and mental processes, in my opinion, is one of the most important functions of empathy in the therapeutic process. The therapist's empathetic addressing of the patient's experiences provides the patient with protection from his own inner critic, who can destroy the process of turning inward by calling it meaningless, ridiculous, or irrelevant. Thanks to the therapist's empathic appeal to the source of the patient's experiences, he (through self-empathy) comes into resonance with his own experience, and can more clearly express what was previously unclear and confused. Direct experience of how the therapist himself reacts to mistakes and discovering the limitations of his own abilities is another chance to soften the patient's self-criticism. Therapists who acknowledge their mistakes provide the patient with an example of how to accept one's shortcomings and deal with misunderstandings that arise in relationships. Constructive resolution of experiences of misunderstanding contributes to the patient's acceptance of his own imperfections and greater trust in relationships with people.
To some extent, the expression of empathy in the therapeutic relationship, regardless of the specific content of the statement, contains the following message: “I am inside you now (or “You are inside me now”) ... and this has important meaning for you, for both of us.” . This statement contains an explicit sexual aspect. Davies (2001) has pointed out the deeply penetrating and seductive nature of the psychoanalytic process, its provoking effect on the emergence of erotic feelings in transference and countertransference. “Psychic penetration can be tender and loving, or aggressive and exploitative, extremely intimate and deeply revealing, enriching and humiliating in equal measure” (Davies, 2001). Surprisingly, I did not find any work that considered or even hypothesized the possibility of a connection between empathy and the emergence of erotic feelings in the therapeutic relationship. Assessing the potential contribution of empathy to the unconscious eroticization of the therapeutic couple's relationship is a task for future clinical research.
The patient's internal working model as a guide to empathic responsiveness
Greenson and then Schafer proposed the idea of developing the patient's internal working model as a guide to the therapist's empathic responsiveness (Eagle, & Wolotzky, 1999). Thus, Greenson saw the therapist's task as constructing a working model of the patient, including physical appearance, affects, life experiences, modes of behavior, attitudes, defenses, values and fantasies, as well as the therapist's expectations and anticipations regarding his potential aspects (Greenson, 1960). According to Schafer, empathy allows the therapist to create a mental model of the patient, ensuring his alertness to signal affects and shared fantasies in response to the patient's associations. In addition, empathy requires a willingness on the part of the therapist to reflect on these reactions, to interpret them as possible clues about the emotional aspects and meanings of the patient's actions during treatment (Shafer, 1983).
Based on these ideas, empathy can be defined as the process of constructing, testing and developing temporary working models of the patient, which incorporate knowledge regarding the patient’s inner world, as well as the inherent features of interpersonal functioning.
Tehke expressed a similar idea, emphasizing the therapist's ability to create within himself a holistic view of the patient's mental life, as well as the mutual nature of identifications in the therapeutic couple, creating the potential for an empathic connection. Describing the importance of empathy in the treatment of a borderline patient, he wrote: "An empathic description can never be an exact copy of the patient's experience due to the fact that his (the analyst's) experience and description of the patient's internal situation are products of a more structured psyche than that which he has in his at the disposal of the patient. These more advanced structures of the analyst include established abilities for the experience of feelings, their representation and verbalization, which the patient either lacks or is insufficiently developed. Even when the analyst tries to describe the empathic experience as accurately as possible and exclusively from the patient's point of view, the difference between his the patient's own structural equipment and equipment will inevitably be felt by the latter - ideally not so much as difference, but as addition to his own way of experiencing... It is this addition to the patient's own experience that serves as the basis for his identification with the analyst's description. Provided that the analyst's empathic identification with the patient has been accurate, his addition to the patient's experience tends to relate to empathic potential in the patient, to something that a normally structured person would experience in the patient's situation. The analyst's empathic description of the patient's experience of being the analyst's complement provides an experiential and representational model for such a potential experience... In the case where the other preconditions for identification are met, the patient can now identify with this new self-image, including the complement present in the empathic description of the analyst (Tehke, 2001, italics Tehke).
Empathy as an Agent of Healing
For a number of decades, the question of whether the affective connection between analyst and patient or cognitive understanding through interpretation is the primary agent of therapeutic change has been hotly debated in the psychoanalytic literature (see, for example, Stolorow, Bradshaft, & Atwood, 1999; Curtis, 2001). Empathy seems to be at the very center of this debate: on the one hand, empathy contributes more than anything else to the creation of a therapeutic atmosphere and strengthens the relationship between therapist and patient; on the other hand, empathy provides the therapist with an essential tool for understanding the patient's inner world, as well as a means of assessing the form and timeliness of therapeutic interventions.
Consistent with the view that emotional and cognitive processes are integral elements of the empathic act, Stolorow, Bradshaft, and Atwood argue that the patient's insights into the nature of unconscious organizing activity go hand in hand with new ways of relating affectively to the analyst. "Both of these components contribute to the growth of the patient's ability to integrate conflictual, previously dissociated aspects of experience. The analyst's ongoing empathic exploration of the patient's affective experiences and the invariant principles organizing them establishes an intersubjective context for the therapeutic relationship in which isolated areas of the patient's subjective life can be discovered and released... Numerous Self-object experiences associated with the analyst provide a context that supports the development of the patient's capacity to take a reflective, understanding, accepting, and consoling stance toward his own affective states and needs" (Stolorow, Bradshaft, & Atwood, 1999).
Pennebaker (1990) also emphasizes the importance of sufficiently long and reliable experience of interaction with an empathic object and its influence on the development of the ability to affective self-regulation. "Consistent empathic activity provides the important function of enhancing the patient's affect regulation. Symbolizing affect through an empathic response facilitates its assimilation into structures of meaning" (Pennebaker, 1990). According to a similar idea by Snyder (1994), the primary function of the therapist is to model and facilitate the patient's ability to enter into his or her own lifeworld and to do so at a level that includes heightened awareness of emotions, ongoing meaning-making, and the ability to interpret experience. in a reflective rather than habitual manner. In other words, the therapist initiates self-empathy in the patient, that is, an attitude of sympathy and interest in one’s own experience, which allows one to be both sensitive to emotions and detached from them.
The question is often raised about the limits of the therapeutic impact of empathy on the patient. On the one hand, it is argued that empathy is important only as a precondition for the analyst’s interpretive activity, that its therapeutic effect is similar to the effect of transference treatment, as a result of which symptoms can be relieved, but a structural change in the patient’s personality is hardly possible.
There are also those who hold the opposite point of view. Thus, Warner believes that empathy has the potential for therapeutic change both at the immediate level of problem solving and at the level of character change. Warner (1999) identifies the following properties of empathy:
Conveying empathy itself promotes positive, self-directed information processing.
Although individual variations exist, homing processing shares common characteristics that are fundamental to human nature. Empathic responding creates a special kind of experiential recognition that introduces new aspects of experience, allowing the patient's life narratives to be reframed.
The empathy of the person caring for the child is the most important function of the self-object, which acts as a precursor to mature abilities to retain and process experience.
The empathic relationship in therapy renews disrupted self-object functions and challenges early decisions about how to deal with both one's own and the other's experiences.
Patients who suffer from early empathic lapses appear to have a deficient way of processing information. As a result, they have difficulty maintaining attention and maintaining optimal intensity of experience, and considering another's point of view without feeling that their own experience is being undermined (Warner, 1999).
Warner's ideas are largely based on Kohut's ideas. How did Kohut himself and the psychology of the Self that he created understand the process of therapeutic healing? In his last, posthumously published book, How Does Analysis Heal? Kohut summarizes the contribution of self psychology as follows: first, it emphasizes the importance of a sequence of (a) experiential understanding (the collection of relevant data about the inner life of the analysand and (b) the explanation of these data in more or less experiential dynamic and genetic terms; secondly, it points to the central role of the process of transformative internalization, that is, the building of structures due to optimal frustration; and thirdly, it formulated the essence of psychological health and the goal of psychoanalytic therapy in terms of self psychology (Kohut, 1984). For Kohut, The essence of psychoanalytic healing is the gradual acquisition of empathic contact with mature self-objects. He believed that therapeutic change involves the opening of an empathic connection and the establishment of an empathic attunement between the self and the self-object in the therapeutic relationship. In other words, the goal of psychoanalytic treatment is not only to make the unconscious conscious as much as to restart arrested development and build psychic structure through transformative internalization.
"According to Kohut, self structures are built in therapy in the same way as they were built at an early age. If the therapist is largely empathic, then the conditions are created for the construction of structures. Just as a parent cannot be absolutely understanding, absolutely empathic all the time, so and the therapist cannot be perfect. Failures are inevitable. The therapist may be in a bad mood or distracted, or simply lose the thread of the client's story. And besides, it is not possible to have a therapist at your disposal all the time. Anyone can get sick or take a vacation. If current mistakes are not too frequent, not traumatic, and the therapist acknowledges them with empathy and without defensiveness, then again the opportunity presented by the inevitable mistakes of a good parent in the form of the therapist appears. The client discovers the opportunity to provide this reassuring empathy without outside help. Every time, then , a process of transformative internalization occurs, a new brick is laid in the structure of the self. In successful therapy, structures are built gradually until the initial deficit is exhausted or until adequate compensatory schemes are created" (Kahn, 1997).
Technical aspects of empathy
The core of any method of psychotherapy is the concept of therapeutic influence, which contains instructions for the therapist’s actions and criteria for their evaluation, that is, it performs an important regulatory function in transforming the therapist’s intentions and hypotheses into a strategy of targeted psychotechnical actions (Yagnyuk, 2001a). We owe to Rogers a description of such techniques as reflection, paraphrasing and reflection of feelings. Rogers originally wrote about the importance of reflecting the client's experience; Subsequently, as a result of differentiating the cognitive and affective components, the terms “reflection of feelings” and “paraphrasing” (that is, reflection of cognitive content) were proposed. Let's look at each of these concepts.
The “reflection” technique, as the very first attempt within the client-centered school to determine the way the therapist conveys his understanding to the client, was often equated with empathy. Bozarth tried to clarify this issue as follows:
Reflection is the way in which the therapist becomes empathic, that is, checks whether he understands the client, and also conveys his understanding to him.
Reflection is primarily for the therapist, not the client. Reflection is a way of entering the client's world. This is a “walk” in the client’s world that contributes to his growth.
Reflection is not empathy. This is a way to help the therapist become more empathetic.
Empathy is not reflection. Empathy is the process by which the therapist enters into the client's world "as if" he were the client. Reflection is a technique that facilitates this process.
Other ways of empathy are not considered. Other modes are usually not as easy to observe and analyze as verbal forms of reflective statements (Bozarth, 1984) .
Paraphrasing can be defined as the return in other words, usually in a more concise and clear form, of the essence of the cognitive content of the client’s statement (Yagnyuk, 2001a). Reflection of feelings- this is the mirroring and verbal designation of emotions verbally or non-verbally expressed by the client (occurring in the past, currently experienced or expected in the future) in order to facilitate their response and comprehension (Yagnyuk, 2001b). "It is important to note that assessing the significance of an experience involves not only an idea of its quality, but also its level of intensity (quantity). Fully understanding the significance of something for another person requires, in addition to knowing how it is important, also knowledge of how important it is to him. Of course, if identification is not followed by introspection and identification is not controlled by it, it will not amount to sharing the emotional experience of another person and thus will not lead to empathic understanding" (Tehke, 2001) .
As an example of how Rogers himself used paraphrasing and reflecting feelings to express empathy, I would like to give an excerpt from his session.
Client: “I couldn’t be so open with my father, but I don’t blame him for that. I was already more open than he allowed. He never listened to me the way you listen, without judgment. Recently I wondered: “why Do I have to be so perfect? And I understood why. Because he demanded it of me. He always demanded that I be better than I am."
Therapist: “So you always tried to be what he wanted you to be.” /paraphrasing/
Client: “And at the same time, I protest. For example, recently I almost glowed with joy when I wrote him a letter about how I work as a waitress at night. I wanted to tell him: “Look what I am like.” But at the same time I want him to love me. I really need his love."
Therapist: “You wanted to kind of wash him.” /paraphrasing/
Client: “Yes! I wanted to tell him, “You raised me, how do you like it?” And you know what I want to hear from him? I want him to say: “I knew it would be like this, but I still love you."
Therapist: "But there's very little chance he'll say that." /reflection of feelings/
Client: “No, he won’t say that. He doesn’t hear me. I visited him two years ago to let him know that I love him, although I’m afraid. But he doesn’t hear me, he keeps repeating the same thing: “ I love you I love you".
Therapist: “So he didn’t know you, but he loved you. /paraphrase/ Does this make you cry?” /open question/
Client: "You know, when I talk about this, it feels like a blow. If I just sit still for a minute, it feels like a big wound right here."
Therapist: "So it's easier to be lighthearted, because then you don't feel the big wound inside." /interpretation/
Client: “Uh-huh. I tried to work on myself and realized that I had to accept as a fact that my father is not the type of man I like - understanding, loving and caring. That is, he, of course, loved me and took care of me me, but not on a level where we could communicate."
Therapist: "You feel robbed." /reflection of feelings/
Client: "Yes. That's why I need replacements. I enjoy talking to you, I like men whom I could respect - doctors and the like. And I pretend that we are really close. You see, I'm looking for a replacement for my father." (quoted from Yagnyuk, 2001a).
In addition to the direct reflection of feelings following the client’s statement, the so-called total reflection of feelings, absorbing the affective content of an entire segment or even an entire conversation, and not just the last utterance. “A summary reflection absorbs several previously expressed feelings into one statement, linking them into a pattern in a certain sequence. A summary reflection of feelings can also express the presence of a common feeling in different situations, a change in the intensity of any one affect, or the identification of a sequential change of several feelings” (Yagnyuk , 2001b). "The patient's current experience may involve a complex mixture of internal reactions: feelings, defenses against feelings, thoughts, fantasies, and the unique way in which the individual organizes his world. For example, one patient may easily express feelings of anger, while another patient may express feelings of anger strongly. alarm. With the first patient, a response that captures a single feeling would seem to be appropriate. With the second patient, the intervention should involve a complex mixture of experiences, namely anger, anxiety and hesitation" (MacIsaac, 1999). An example of a summative reflection of feelings might be a therapist saying something like, “As you talked about this event, your feelings changed: first you felt hurt, then angry, and now it seems to be replaced by sadness” or “In your descriptions of family relationships , memories of school years and relationships at work there is a feeling of personal failure."
Generally speaking, Rogers' contribution to the technique of client-centered therapy can be said to be paradoxical. On the one hand, the formalization of the reflection of feelings and the rules of paraphrasing provided therapists with a powerful tool for empathic understanding (Bozarth, 1997). However, in his recent work, in response to the growing popularity and often mechanical application of reflective statements, Rogers emphasized that the technique has little value unless it is part of the therapist's attitudes. In fact, Rogers' views underwent changes: first he spoke about method, then o installations therapist, and finally therapeutic relationship as a key ingredient in the therapeutic process (Kirschenbaum, 1979, emphasis added). Bozarth (1997), one of the leaders of modern client-centered therapy, notes that the main reason for the development of techniques in the client-centered tradition is to help the therapist clear his barriers to better absorb the client's world of ideas. Brodley & Brody 1996) take a consistent position: "Techniques can be used if they are part of a response to the client's reactions and questions, but not as a result of the therapist's diagnostic vision from which specific goals and techniques flow." In my opinion, this view of Rogers, and indeed the failure to develop theory of psychopathology and technique by his followers, led to a delay in further development of the technical aspects of empathic communication within the client-centered tradition.
Greenberg and Elliot (1999), one of the founders of experiential therapy, have proposed an interesting conceptualization of the therapeutic use of empathy. According to them, the target of the therapist's empathic responses are feelings, with a focus on emotional experience, or self-concept, with a focus on how people see and evaluate themselves (see table).
Greenberg and Elliot (1999) also proposed a conceptual development of types of empathic responses. Although the types of empathic responses he identifies lack clarity in formulation and the reader may have difficulty differentiating one type of intervention from another, I have found it useful to present them and select examples to illustrate them.
Empathic understanding. The therapist communicates his or her understanding of the client's explicit experience, or that which has been implied by the client but has not yet been expressed. The function of this intervention is to strengthen and confirm the client's self and help build confidence in his own experiences.
Example (Rogers, 1994).
Client: “You know, this is kind of stupid, but I never talked about it ( laughs nervously), and it will probably do me good. Many years ago, in my youth, probably around seventeen, I discovered that I had what I began to call "glimpses of reason." I never told anyone about this ( laughs embarrassedly again)... where I really saw this intelligence. I was quite aware of life, and always with terrible regret, with sadness about how far we had gone from the right path. I experienced this feeling quite rarely, only when I felt like a complete person in this terribly disordered world."
Therapist: “It only flashed, it wasn’t often, but at times it seemed that you were completely acting and feeling in this, of course, very disorderly world...”
Empathic awakening. The therapist brings to life the client's experience using metaphor, expressive language, evocative imagination, or speaking as the client does. The therapist's intention is to retrieve and identify the experience so that it can be re-experienced in the moment. The function of this intervention is to provide access to new information and new experiences. The therapist does not add any new information, but through awakening increases the possibility of extracting it from the client's experience.
An example (Wanershot, in press).
The client tells the therapist about how he withdraws during difficult periods, allowing his feelings to gradually subside. Then the client expresses the image of a dungeon in a medieval fortress, which he associates with thick walls, complete silence and safety. After a pause, the therapist expresses the feeling that this image evoked in him, namely the feeling of a cold atmosphere of darkness, abandonment and loneliness. The initial reaction is that the client appears shocked and has stopped breathing. Then his eyes moisten and he begins to come into contact with the enormous loneliness that he has tried to hide for so long.
Empathic Guess. The therapist tries to clarify the client's experience by way of a working hypothesis, expressing a guess about what the client may be experiencing at the moment. Typically, empathic insight is expressed in the form of a hunch or a guess. By adopting a non-authoritarian position, the therapist encourages the development of a shared frame of reference, making it easier for the client to express disagreement when necessary. The therapist's intention is to offer the client a suitable symbol to capture this or that aspect of his experience. The therapist creates the opportunity to add new information by focusing attention on an as yet unarticulated aspect of the client's current experience.
An example (Wanershot, in press).
One client had extreme difficulty expressing her experiences. She often withdrawn into herself, overwhelmed by strong emotions. At one of the climaxes of the session, she said, “Like a steamer, that’s how I feel.” The therapist's response was, "The steamer... It makes me feel like there's an abnormally high pressure inside, like there's a danger of an explosion. Is that what you feel?"
Empathic Inquiry. The therapist encourages the client to seek new internal information beyond the “borders” of his immediate experience. Discovering a new aspect of experience, seeing something in a new light, is the goal of empathic inquiry. The therapist focuses on expanding and differentiating the client's current experience, using reflections to focus the client's attention on the unclear boundaries of the experience, open-ended questions, or even directly asking the client for more information about what is potentially present but has not yet been directly expressed by the client.
Empathic interpretation. Here empathy contributes to understanding its unconscious dynamics. This reaction is based on empathy, although it is carried out based on the coordinate system of the therapist, not the client. The intention is to say something new that is not consciously acknowledged by the client. The function of this intervention is to link different aspects of experience. Timeliness is important: the therapist interprets the client’s experience in a sensitive, non-judgmental manner when the client is ready to accept and assimilate new information about himself.
Example. (Kahn, 1997).
Therapist: I experience a warm connection with you at the beginning and at the end of our sessions. I wonder if you have noticed anything like this? /study/
Client: Well, sometimes it seems like I don't feel the mistrust until we start.
Therapist: Okay, how did you feel about me when you first came in here and said hello? /study/
Client: (thinking) I felt good. I felt that I liked you. The mistrust seemed to come a little later.
Therapist: Probably when you liked me more. /interpretation/
Client: (embarrassed) Perhaps you are right.
Therapist: And we have been stubbornly avoiding this topic for a long time. /interpretation/
Client: Yes, indeed.
Therapist: Maybe you think if you like me too much, it's dangerous for you. /interpretation/
(The client is silent with his eyes downcast. When he raises his eyes, they are filled with tears.)
Therapist: I can really understand how scary this is.
Let us now consider Kohut's contribution to the development of psychotherapeutic techniques. According to Kohut, the process of empathic response involves two stages, namely understanding and explanation. "In the early phases of therapy, Kohut sought to convey to the patient that he understood the latter's point of view. He deliberately did not try to interpret or offer new information to the patient - no matter how true and useful it was - because he believed that such messages would narcissistically wound and re-traumatize patient" (Warner, 1999). The purpose of this initial step is to ensure that the analyst's understanding is more or less correct and that the patient generally feels understood. "The next step is to use the patient's understanding accumulated during psychotherapy to explain the meaning of his experience, namely how it relates to events from the past, tensions of internal forces and intrapsychic dynamics. Although with some very disturbed individuals only the first step is necessary over a long period treatment, over time they will be able to benefit from the two-step sequence of understanding and explanation" (Warner, 1999).
MacIsaac notes that although understanding and explanation are seen as separate steps, in practice they often overlap. "Comprehension and communication of the patient's experience (understanding) is an ongoing process of achieving a fuller comprehension of the meaning of the experience (explanation). At the same time, explanation - inevitably more abstract than understanding - must include a component close to the experience (understanding) in order to contain the fullness of the patient's experience" (MacIsaac, 1999).
For illustration understanding And explanations according to Kohut, Kahn (1997) gives the following example.
Recently, circumstances forced me to close my office and receive clients in temporary premises. One client refused to meet there because parking there was too difficult. She was angry even when I asked about it. I had to tell her that the parking here was no worse than anywhere else. And that there might be something else underlying her anger. The client became more and more irritated. In the end, I got angry too. This was literally turning into a disaster. Kohut would have found his own way out of such a situation and would have said warmly: “I understand how unpleasant it is for you to constantly be upset during our meetings. I think it is really difficult to find a place where you could park. But I think other problems would arise , if our meetings were held somewhere else. Probably, some of these troubles would be much more difficult to express than about difficulties with parking a car" (understanding). If she had continued to struggle, Kohut might have said, "I think it's really unpleasant when they just tell you that you're moving without asking your opinion about it. It's probably like an example of those times when you were pushed around and decisions were made for you, and you just had to agree with them or not. It must be very difficult. (understanding)... If in this example the therapy was at an advanced stage and I had accumulated enough information, and if I thought that the client is ready for this, Kohut might well have required me to say: “Your strong reaction to this change is understandable. I am aware of your father's contradictions and unreliability. You could never rely on him for anything. Therefore, any manifestation of inconsistency and unreliability in our relationship greatly upsets you" (explanation).
Critics of psychoanalysis argue that explanations are distant from the experience of intervention, which inevitably leads to empathic failures on the part of the therapist. Yes, indeed, explanatory reactions are more distant from experience than understanding reactions, since they include aspects of mental experience that go beyond the current therapeutic situation and are formulated based on a certain set of theoretical ideas. However, according to MacIsaac, they are no less empathic. "The degree to which a patient's experience is fully explained depends on the patient's conscious and unconscious willingness to hear higher-level empathic intervention. In other words, the search for meaning begins with the patient, not with the analyst. Moreover, the explanation is given with sensitivity to the patient's areas of vulnerability, rather than offered mechanically "And finally, the theory that the analyst uses is derived from data close to the experience. And the closer the theory is to the patient's experience, the more accurate and effective the explanation" (MacIsaac, 1999).
Notes
1) The use of the words “client” (humanistic tradition) and “patient” (psychoanalytic tradition) is interchangeable.
2) Rogers repeatedly noted the need to perceive the patient’s internal coordinate system from his point of view, but without losing the “as if” condition. “This had a special meaning for Rogers, which may have been related to the problem he once experienced - a “psychotic” breakdown that arose while working with a “psychotic” client” (Kirschenbaum, 1979).
3) This example can also serve to illustrate how empathic comments reflect not only what the client is saying, but also an undefined area at the edge of his consciousness. “When the therapist communicates his understanding of the client's feelings and meanings, expressing meanings that have not yet been formulated by the latter, the client is able to expand his understanding of himself and allow more organismic experience into his consciousness” (Meador and Rogers, in press).
4) By self-object function we mean the function necessary to maintain the coherence and stability of the individual's experience, which is carried out through participation in relationships between people, and which, being internalized, becomes a relatively independent ability.
5) This example also demonstrates that Rogers, although rarely, used the technique of interpretation, and also that he also had to deal with the transference feelings of his patients.
Literature:
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- Gendlin, Y. (1993). Subverbal communication and therapist expressiveness: trends in the development of client-centered psychotherapy. // Moscow psychotherapeutic journal. No. 3
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FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education “Pomeranian State University named after. M.V. Lomonosov"
KORYAZHEMSKY BRANCH
FACULTY OF CHEMISTRY AND GEOGRAPHY
Department of Chemistry
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO FORMING KNOWLEDGE ABOUT CHEMICAL REACTIONS
course work
Protected with the mark _______________
Scientific director _____________
Koryazhma
Introduction
Chapter 1. The structure of the concept of “chemical reaction” and its stages
formation
1.1 The concept of “chemical reaction” as a system
1.2 Stages of formation of the concept of “chemical reaction”
Chapter 2. Basic methods used in the sections on chemical
2.1 Introduction of the concept of “chemical reaction”
2.2 Formation of knowledge on types of chemical reactions
2.3 Formation of knowledge about ion exchange reactions
2.4 Formation of knowledge about chemical kinetics
Conclusion
Bibliography
Application
Introduction
The topic of this course work is “Methodological approaches to the formation of knowledge about chemical reactions.” A methodical approach, or a method, is a way of achieving a goal, an activity ordered in a certain way. The main goal that a chemistry teacher must achieve when studying this concept is to form an entire system of knowledge about chemical reactions, consisting of separate subsystems and blocks of knowledge. Students must not only master the theoretical material of this topic, but also be able to apply the acquired knowledge in practice, understand the chemical processes that form the basis of chemical production (production of sulfuric acid, mineral fertilizers, etc.) and the chemical phenomena that constantly occur in nature (changes in the mineral composition of rocks, the formation of ozone in the atmosphere), understand the importance of using the safest methods for obtaining new alternative building materials for the environment.
This topic is relevant, since it is necessary to develop the most effective methodological approaches to the formation of knowledge about chemical reactions that satisfy the goal.
The object of the research is a theoretical system of knowledge about a chemical reaction, and the subject is those methodological approaches that contribute to the effective understanding and assimilation of knowledge about a chemical reaction.
The purpose of the work is, first of all, to consider the system-forming concept of “chemical reaction”, study and analyze the approaches used in the formation of the main blocks of knowledge about chemical reactions.
Here it is important to study the main subsystems integrated by the general concept of “chemical reaction”, show the connections between them, consider the properties of this system, reveal the stages of formation of this concept as students accumulate theoretical material, describe the methods (their content) used at the modern level of teaching chemistry ( general logical, general pedagogical, specific), show their application in combination when studying sections on chemical reactions.
Chapter 1. The structure of the concept of “chemical reaction” and the stages of its formation
1.1 The concept of “chemical reaction” as a system of content of an educational subject
The system of concepts about a chemical reaction is a very complex, multifaceted, multicomponent system. This complicates the generalization of knowledge and the identification of an invariant of a given system of concepts. In a developed and structurally formulated form, the general concept of a chemical reaction represents a theoretical system of essential knowledge about it. The scientific and theoretical foundations of its formation are the theories of the structure of substances and chemical processes, the periodic law and the law of conservation of mass and energy. The concept of “chemical reaction” is closely related to the concept of “substance”. This is a reflection of the dialectical connection between the type of matter and the form of its movement. During chemical reactions, substances are transformed. Chemical reactions are phenomena in which the composition, structure and properties of chemical compounds change - some substances are converted into others.
The leading idea for the successive formation and generalization of knowledge about chemical reactions in school should be the triune structural-energetic-kinetic approach, since from these positions it is possible to give a versatile characterization of the reaction.
The basis for deploying the entire body of knowledge about a chemical reaction in the form of a theoretical system is the genetically initial relationship between the reagents and reaction products. The genetically initial relation lying at the center of this knowledge system reflects the general model of a chemical reaction:
REAGENTS→REACTION PRODUCTS
where PAK is the transition active complex.
The essential features and aspects of the general concept of a chemical reaction are the following blocks of knowledge:
a block of knowledge about the conditions and signs of reactions;
block of knowledge about the energy of chemical reactions;
block of knowledge about the kinetics of chemical reactions;
block of knowledge about chemical equilibrium;
block of knowledge about the laws of reactions.
The fundamental concepts of this system are “reactivity”, “transition state”, “reaction rate”, “reaction mechanism”. It is these concepts that are at the center of modern theoretical chemistry as key ones. Therefore, the leading approach in the analysis and formation of this system is the kinetic approach.
The essence of the chemical reaction is the formation of PAA according to the scheme:
initial state – transition state – final state of the reaction system. As V.I. Kuznetsov writes: “The transition state of a system is the essence of chemical transformations, the essence of any chemical process.” During chemical reactions, bonds in the starting substances are broken and others (usually stronger and more energetically favorable) are formed in the reaction products.
The elementary substance of a chemical reaction are atoms (ions, radicals) of elements. The conservation of atoms and their fundamental properties, including their masses, charges, etc., serves as the basis for quantitative descriptions of chemical reactions, for establishing quantitative relationships reflected by reaction equations. This explains their submission to the law of conservation of mass and energy. The restructuring of the electronic structures of atoms, molecules and other particles participating in the reaction that occurs during the transformation of substances is accompanied by the formation and transformation of chemical energy into its other types. The energy sign is one of the most important signs of a chemical reaction.
All this essential knowledge, reflecting the characteristics, aspects, connections and relationships of a chemical reaction, constitutes the theoretical core of the system of concepts about a chemical reaction. This system can be represented by the following diagram:
|
Substance Knowledge |
2. Conditions arise ia and leakage reactions and them signs |
3. Mechanism reactions |
4. Speed reactions |
chemical production |
|||
|
Reaction model |
5. Chemical equilibrium |
||||||
|
Reagents products initial final state state final state |
|||||||
|
1. Reaction Naya ability substances and energy processes |
6. Chemical law noi and control chemical reactions |
||||||
|
classification of chemical reactions |
|||||||
|
Electrondi- namical |
Electronic static |
||||||
|
7. Reaction equations |
|||||||
Fig.1. System of knowledge about chemical reactions in a school chemistry course.
1. The block of knowledge about the conditions and signs of reactions includes mainly empirical concepts formed on the basis of experiment and observations. Signs of reactions are identified on the basis of experimental data. Comparison of experiments makes it possible to identify common features for all reactions - the formation of new substances and energy changes that accompany these changes.
2. The block of knowledge about the energy of chemical reactions allows you to answer the question of why chemical reactions occur, whether they are possible or impossible, and what the driving forces of the reactions are. In a school chemistry course, knowledge of energy is represented by such elements of thermochemistry as the thermal effect of a reaction, thermochemical equations; In high school, the concepts of entropy and Gibbs energy are introduced. In addition, they include the concept of activation energy.
3. The block of knowledge about the kinetics of chemical reactions answers the question of how chemical reactions proceed, reveals the course of the reaction over time, and their mechanism. This problem is central to modern chemistry, therefore, when considering reactions, the kinetic approach is the leading one, including in school.
The most important concepts of this block are: “reactivity”, “reaction rate”, “activation energy”, “activated transition complex”, “reaction mechanism”, “catalysis and its types” and others. In addition, this block includes such laws as Van't Hoff's rule, the law of mass action (without taking into account stoichiometric coefficients or for reactions where these coefficients are equal to 1). The most common concept is “reactivity”. It reveals the connection between the properties of reagents and various factors, including kinetic ones.
The concept of the rate of a chemical reaction characterizes the course of a reaction over time, reflecting the nature of changes in the properties of the reagents and their concentrations. It is determined by the change in the concentration of reacting substances per unit time. Reaction rate is a central concept in the system of knowledge about reactions in a school chemistry course. Its main purpose is a qualitative and quantitative description of the course of reactions over time.
The concept of “reaction mechanism” is the most abstract and difficult to understand. Therefore, first we give its simplest formulation: the reaction mechanism is a sequence of elementary chemical acts. This concept reveals the course of a chemical process, both in time and in space (number of particles, sequence of collisions, structure of PAA). Taken together, the concepts of “reaction rate,” “reactivity,” and “reaction mechanism” form the core of kinetic knowledge. The factor connecting them is the concept of an “intermediate activated complex,” which reflects the unity of stability and variability of chemical compounds, the mechanism of many reactions. The activated complex is characterized as an unstable intermediate with a large amount of energy and as an intermediate state of the reaction. This concept is closely related to the concept of “activation energy” - the optimal energy that reacting particles (molecules, ions, etc.) must have so that upon collision they can enter into a chemical reaction.
4. Block of knowledge about chemical equilibrium.
The most important concepts of the block are: “direct and reverse reactions”, “chemical equilibrium”, “factors and patterns of displacement of chemical equilibrium”. The theoretical basis for the disclosure of this material is the basic principles of kinetics and thermodynamics, Le Chatelier's principle and others. The integrative concept of this block is chemical equilibrium. Traditionally, knowledge about chemical equilibrium is included in the system of concepts about kinetics, and is considered as the equality of the rates of forward and reverse reactions. Consideration of chemical equilibrium from this position is one-sided. A thermodynamic approach to considering this issue is also possible. Here, chemical equilibrium is considered as a balancing of enthalpy and entropy factors, as the equality of two opposite tendencies - to order and disorder, taking place in a closed system at a constant temperature and constant amounts of reagent substances.
5. The block of knowledge about the laws of reactions reveals repeating connections and relationships between objects and phenomena of chemistry. These patterns include:
regular ratios of masses of reagents and reaction products, ratios of volumes of reacting substances (for gases);
the course of reactions towards a decrease in the free energy of the system (∆G
the dependence of the reactivity of substances (bonds, atoms, ions) on the electronegativity and degree of oxidation of the atoms of the elements included in their composition;
dependence of the reaction on the nature of the reagents;
dependence of the reaction rate on various factors (concentration of reagents, their state and particle size, temperature, pressure, etc.);
dependence of the shift in chemical equilibrium on kinetic factors (changes in temperature and pressure, concentration of reacting substances).
An important accumulator of chemical laws is the periodic system of D.I. Mendeleev; many of the laws are generalized by the electrochemical series of metal voltages.
This theoretical system of knowledge has the functions of description, explanation and prediction. This level of development is achieved by this system at certain stages of training as a result of theoretical generalization and application of knowledge. Passing in its development through successively changing theories, enriched with new knowledge and skills, it acquires the structure and functions of theoretical knowledge systems.
includes primarily empirical concepts formed on the basis of
1.2 Stages of formation of the concept of “chemical reaction”
Due to the fact that the concept of a chemical reaction is quite complex and multifaceted, it is impossible to form a complete understanding of all its sides and reveal its entire philosophical essence in a short period of time. Moreover, this concept is formed throughout the entire chemistry course.
The concept of “chemical reaction” is formed in stages.
First stage (8th grade). In the initial stages of studying chemistry, an inductive approach is used. The basis of the study, as a source of chemical knowledge, is chemical experiment. As a result of observing the experiment, students become aware of the formation of new substances during a chemical reaction. But in the experimental study of reactions, no attention is paid to its essence, the emphasis is on external manifestations (change in the color of the solution, gas release, precipitation).
The concept of a chemical reaction begins to form from the very first lessons. First, they give an idea of the phenomena occurring in nature, everyday life, and everyday life, distinguishing between physical and chemical phenomena. And then they inform students about the identity of the concepts “chemical phenomenon” and “chemical reaction”. At the level of atomic-molecular teaching, they explain how one can detect the occurrence of a chemical reaction by external signs.
The classification of chemical reactions is given at the level of comparing the number of starting and resulting substances. At the same time, students use such mental techniques as comparison, analysis, synthesis, and generalization. All of this information is included in the "Initial Chemical Concepts" section. Next, all aspects of the system of concepts about a chemical reaction must be expanded and supplemented with new data, i.e., the accumulation stage begins. The patterns of chemical reactions are analyzed using the simplest examples: the influence of temperature is considered on the reaction of formation of iron sulfide, oxidation reactions are considered as the process of combining a substance with oxygen, the concept of exchange reactions is based on the example of the interaction of acids with oxides, etc.
At the second stage (grade 8), the concept of a chemical reaction is further developed. Energy ideas about chemical reactions begin to form. The concept of exo- and endothermic reactions is considered, a new concept is introduced about the thermal effect of a chemical reaction, thermochemical equations and their composition. When studying energy effects, it becomes possible to show not only the qualitative, but also the quantitative side of a chemical reaction. Quantitative ratios of reacting substances are interpreted as molar ratios of reacting substances.
At the third stage (8th grade) of formation, the concept of “chemical reaction” undergoes qualitative changes in the topic “Chemical bond. The structure of matter." In this topic, a chemical reaction begins to be interpreted as the destruction of some bonds and the formation of others. This is considered using the example of redox reactions. The mechanism of these reactions is explained in terms of electron transfer, thereby rising to a higher theoretical level.
Based on the new concept of “oxidation state,” reactions of different types known to students are analyzed, thereby proving that redox reactions can be found among reactions of any type.
The topic “Oxygen subgroup” introduces a new concept of allotropy and a new type of reaction corresponding to it - allotropic transformations.
Fourth stage (9th grade). In the section “Regularities of chemical reactions,” the concept of the rate of a chemical reaction and the factors influencing it (temperature, concentration, contact surface) is introduced. The issue of the reversibility of a chemical reaction and chemical equilibrium is also considered here. It is necessary to emphasize the dynamic nature of chemical equilibrium and the factors that cause a shift in chemical equilibrium. Thus, students are introduced to another type of chemical reaction - reversible.
Stage five. At this stage, students are introduced to such an important topic as “The Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation.” In addition to its ideological significance (illustration of the unity and struggle of opposites - molarization and dissociation), it introduces a lot of new things into the explanation of the mechanism of reactions. On the basis of the concept of reversible reactions, it is possible to explain the essence of the dissociation process, as well as the hydrolysis of salts, considered in ionic form, so as not to introduce the concept of hydroxo salts.
Stage six (grades 9 – 10). Further development of the concept of a chemical reaction is carried out in the course of organic chemistry. The concepts of the classification of chemical reactions are supplemented, new types of reactions are introduced, for example, isomerization, polymerization, esterification, etc. In organics, qualitatively new material is introduced into the concept of reaction mechanisms. For example, the free radical mechanism is considered using the example of substitution reactions (halogenation of alkanes), addition (polymerization), and elimination (cracking). The concept of the ionic mechanism of a chemical reaction is expanded: examples of the addition of inorganic compounds to alkenes and substitution reactions during the hydrolysis of haloalkanes are given.
The system of concepts about the patterns of chemical reactions is also supplemented. When developing the concept of “rate of a chemical reaction,” the influence of bond energy and its type is noted. Knowledge about catalysis and catalysts is complemented in organics by knowledge about enzymes.
Stage seven (grade 11). At the final stage of training, results are summed up and knowledge about chemical reactions is generalized. At the end of the training, students should be able to characterize the chemical reaction given to them as an example in the light of the components of its content.
Chapter 2: Basic Techniques Used in Chemical Reaction Sections
2.1 Introduction of the concept of “chemical reaction”
The very definition of chemistry gives the subject of study - chemical phenomena accompanied by the transformation of substances. Students should not just memorize this definition, they must first understand the subject and in the learning process it should be constantly emphasized. When forming knowledge about chemical phenomena, it is important to take into account such a principle of dialectics as the transition from abstract to concrete knowledge. The foundation of such training will be the original concept of science, i.e. abstraction. To rely on a concept means to derive its specific, particular forms from the universal.
Together with the teacher, students carry out quasi-research subject activities and discover the subject of knowledge of chemistry - a chemical phenomenon. The process of cognition is based on analysis, reflection and prediction of available experiments, only some of which are carried out by the teacher, and the majority by the students themselves.
So, with the help of a teacher, they analyze what is happening in the world around them and discover the occurrence of various phenomena. Students reproduce some of them experimentally. The experimental results indicate changes in substances - this is a sign of any phenomenon. Taking the nature of changes in substances as the basis for classification, phenomena can be divided into two groups. The first includes phenomena in which only the transition of substances from one state to another occurs, and the second includes the transformation of some substances into others. The first group of phenomena is called physical (schoolchildren study them in a physics course), the second group is called chemical (students encounter them for the first time).
To more clearly differentiate the phenomena considered, as well as other phenomena proposed by the students themselves (for now based on their main external features), schoolchildren model them in graphic or symbolic form (optional). Subsequent analysis of models and comprehension of generalized phenomena according to the “was-has become” scheme shows students that with physical phenomena what was, remains, that is, substances did not change their nature, but only passed into another state, whereas with chemical phenomena it was something one thing, but it became something else.
The implementation by students of the actions described above allows them to identify a universal feature of chemical phenomena (in comparison with physical ones) - the transformation of substances - and thereby discover the subject of chemistry. On the basis of this same universal characteristic, an abstract (i.e. one-sided) definition of the concept “chemical phenomenon” is formulated at the level of representation: a chemical phenomenon (chemical reaction) is the process of transforming some substances into others.
Thus, from the very beginning of teaching chemistry, the teacher introduces students to the situation of discovering a new property of reality for them - the transformation of substances, characterized by the as yet unknown abstract concept of “chemical phenomenon (chemical reaction).”
To motivate students to further study chemistry, the teacher, when discussing issues of chemical phenomena, asks them to think: are chemical phenomena important in nature, in industrial production, in human life? Why do you need to study them? After their discussion, students begin to study the subject of chemistry - the transformation of substances. Students can easily differentiate the phenomena they are familiar with into physical and chemical, but if they are shown, for example, the process of dissolving sugar and the interaction of solutions of hydrochloric acid and alkali, then they are unlikely to be able to unambiguously attribute the latter process to chemical phenomena (there are no visible signs of a reaction). Thus, the teacher leads students to the idea that external signs alone are not enough to call a phenomenon chemical.
In this regard, the teacher sets an educational task: to identify internal signs of the transformation of some substances into others.
A new stage of quasi-research by students begins, aimed at logical abstraction and division of the subject of research into components. At this stage, students explore the internal structure of the concept of a chemical reaction.
To do this, the teacher suggests studying the substances involved in transformations. Together with the students, the teacher formulates a hypothesis: perhaps the essence of the reaction lies in the study of the substances involved in it. To solve this problem, it is necessary to use abstraction, that is, mentally extract models of chemical phenomena, and experimentally study real substances. Learn to create new models of substances. These actions make it possible to transfer students’ thinking to an abstract level of understanding of substances, thereby concretizing the concept of “chemical phenomenon.”
The most appropriate way to study a substance is through observable signs, but if they are not there, it is necessary to somehow influence the substance. Students already know that substances are made up of atoms linked into molecules. In some substances the bonds are stronger, in others less strong. The hypothesis is again put forward: if substances consist of microparticles, then transformations may consist of changes between molecules and bonds. With a change in the hypothesis, a new educational task is formulated: to find out what happens to microparticles and the bonds between them during the chemical transformation of substances.
Thus, the mental activity of students is transferred to the micro level of organization of matter.
In accordance with the principles of activity and objectivity, students’ mental actions should be based on the results of experiments.
Students are shown a simple experiment: heating water, its subsequent evaporation and condensation. When heated, the bonds between water molecules are broken, since when energy is imparted to them, their mobility increases. When steam condenses, bonds are formed again between water molecules. Schoolchildren conclude that no changes occurred in the process of breaking and forming bonds between molecules, which means this is a physical phenomenon.
Thus, having studied the phenomena between substances, only atoms remain unstudied.
A hypothesis is again put forward: perhaps the essence of the transformations of substances lies in the changes that occur with atoms and the bonds between them. And again, the educational task changes - to find out what happens to atoms of different types and to the bonds between them during the transformation of one substance into another, and how this can be established. The teacher demonstrates the electrolysis of water, during which oxygen and hydrogen are formed. By modeling this process, students see: decomposition is accompanied by the breaking of bonds in a water molecule, and then the formation of bonds between two oxygen atoms and four hydrogen atoms.
Thus, students realize that chemical phenomena occur at the level of consideration of atoms and the bonds between them.
After modeling other chemical processes and identifying their general characteristics, students draw a conclusion: the essence of a chemical phenomenon (reaction) lies in the breaking of bonds in the starting substances and the formation of new bonds between atoms of the same types in the reaction products. Now they can formulate a definition of a chemical phenomenon at the level of an abstract entity: a chemical phenomenon is the process of breaking bonds between particles of initial substances and the formation of new bonds in the reaction products between the same particles, but in a different combination. This definition is abstract for students simply because students cannot answer the question of why some connections are broken while others are formed. To answer this question, students need to first learn about atoms and then the bonds between them.
After studying atoms, students can construct chemical compounds, first at the micro- and then at the macro-level of the organization of matter, and only then, knowing the strength of bonds in substances, comprehend and predict the processes of their breaking and formation.
As each level of organization of a substance associated with chemical phenomena is studied, the concept of “chemical reaction” becomes more and more specific.
The method of setting hypotheses and searching for answers to them, understanding the occurring phenomena constitutes the stage of schoolchildren’s entry into the oriented-motivational process, which is important for transferring the student from the position of an object of influence to the position of a subject who himself collaborates with other students and teachers. Students who have reached this stage can consciously answer the questions: what does chemistry study? Why should it be studied? What is the way to know it?
When searching for the answer to the first question, students open the subject of chemistry; responding to the second, they update the internal motives and needs of its study; discussing the third, they comprehend the plan for studying chemistry (at an abstract level) in accordance with the principle of ascent from the abstract to the concrete.
As a result, we can say that if students comprehend the dialectically structured content of educational material, discover the principles and laws of dialectics and use them as a means of orientation in the world and knowledge of the surrounding reality, then we can probably state the fact of the formation of a personality with a developed dialectical way of thinking .
2.2 Formation of knowledge about types of chemical reactions
The study of atomic-molecular science and initial chemical concepts, as well as some accumulation of facts, allows a more meaningful approach to the classification of reactions.
The first acquaintance with the classification of substances shows that it is based on their composition and properties: substances are divided into simple and complex (based on composition), and simple substances are divided into metals and non-metals (based on properties).
Thus, any classification of phenomena, objects, substances is associated with the choice of some essential features that can be used as the basis for dividing objects or phenomena into groups.
Is it possible to classify chemical reactions? What is the basis for their classification?
The essence of any chemical reaction is to change the composition of the molecules of the substances taken for the reaction. Therefore, the nature of these changes must form the basis for the classification of chemical reactions. After explaining the problem posed to the students, you can ask them to name the reactions they know and write the equations of these reactions on the board.
|
H2O=H2+O2 |
In some cases, from the molecules of one substance, 2 molecules of other substances are obtained - these are decomposition reactions, in others, on the contrary, from the molecules of two substances one molecule of a new substance is formed - these are compound reactions. The teacher, together with the students, analyzing these conclusions, finds out whether molecules of a simple substance are always formed from molecules of one complex substance. To answer this question, the teacher carries out a decomposition reaction, for example, of malachite or potassium permanganate.
Thus, students realize that during the decomposition of complex substances, both complex and simple substances (or a mixture of both) can be formed. In conclusion, students sketch a diagram of this experiment, make the necessary notes on the drawing and write down the reaction equations.
Further, when forming students' understanding of the types of reactions, the teacher again puts forward the problem: can any other rearrangements of atoms occur during a chemical reaction other than those that occur during chemical reactions of addition and decomposition?
To answer this question, the teacher demonstrates to the students an experiment between a CuCl 2 solution and iron (iron nail). During the process, the iron nail is coated with a coating of copper. The teacher asks the question: can this reaction be classified as a compound or decomposition reaction? To answer this question, the teacher writes the reaction equation on the board (thus linking the model of the process with the real experiment just carried out) and explains that this reaction cannot be attributed to either type, since during the process the molecules of two substances two molecules of new substances are also formed. This means there is reason to identify another type of reaction. This is the third type of chemical reaction, which is called displacement. It must be emphasized that the substitution reaction involves one simple and one complex substance.
At the end of the lesson, students complete a series of exercises on this topic, thereby acquiring and consolidating skills in working with new material. In addition, students are given homework on this topic.
As can be seen from the above, during the lesson the teacher, when explaining this material, uses the methods of conversation, story, and explanation. Thanks to leading questions, students are included in the thinking process. Here it is rational to use clarity, in which the leading role is given to the chemical experiment. It is important to connect the types of reactions with processes occurring in life (for example, the process of release of copper on an iron nail indicates its destruction; this process of metal destruction is present everywhere).
After introducing the exchange reactions, the teacher again offers to discuss two reactions. These could be, for example, the following:
Mg + H 2 SO 4 = MgSO 4 + H 2 and MgO + H 2 SO 4 = MgSO 4 + H 2 O.
What are the similarities and differences between these reactions? Discussing these process models with the teacher, students should come to the following conclusions:
the similarity is manifested in the fact that the amount of starting materials and reaction products is the same; one of the products in both cases is the salt MgSO 4;
difference: the starting materials of one reaction are complex substances, in the other - simple and complex;
reactions are of different types.
Having received these answers, or leading students to them with leading questions, the teacher suggests considering two more reactions:
FeO + H 2 SO 4 = FeSO 4 + H 2 O and FeCl 2 + H 2 SO 4 = FeSO 4 + 2HCl.
Again, during the discussion, students come to the following conclusions:
the substances involved in the reactions belong to different classes of inorganic compounds (FeO - basic oxide and acid, FeCl 2 - salt and acid);
in these reactions, complex substances exchange constituent parts (atoms or groups of atoms);
reactions are of the same type.
Reactions between complex chemical substances that result in exchange between atoms or groups of atoms are called exchange reactions.
As a special case of exchange reactions, the teacher needs to tell students about neutralization reactions. After reading and writing down the following rules indicating the possibility of a reaction:
During the reaction, water is formed;
a precipitate appears;
gas is released;
Students outline the characteristic features of exchange reactions:
CuSO 4 + NaOH, HCl + K 2 CO 3, NaOH + HCl.
The study is carried out as follows:
writing reaction equations,
working with the solubility table,
conclusion about the possibility of the reaction occurring,
experimental verification.
After conducting an experimental test, students note the absence of visible signs of the last reaction. The teacher explains that this reaction is a neutralization reaction, and reactions of this type must be carried out in the presence of indicators, by the change in color of which it is necessary to judge that the reaction has taken place.
Thus, students receive, on the basis of atomic-molecular teaching, a first understanding of the classification of reactions. Subsequently, the idea of classification formed at this level undergoes a number of qualitative and quantitative changes and additions. Thus, there is an increase in the study of the quantitative side of processes (the law of conservation of mass, Avogadro’s law and consequences from it, etc. are being studied). In the quantitative description of chemical reactions, the study of the elements of thermochemistry contributes to the prediction of the possibilities of their occurrence: the thermal effect, thermochemical equations. Their knowledge is based on initial energy ideas.
Summarizing the knowledge about energy dependencies revealed on the basis of experiments, it is necessary to highlight the most important of them - the relationship between the formation of new substances and the energy effect of the reaction, since energy changes, according to D.I. Mendeleev, represent the internal content of chemical reactions. It is important to bring students to a conclusion that complements the previous ones: the process of formation of new substances is associated with energy changes. Their important characteristic is the thermal effect of the reaction.
This knowledge is the basis for classification based on energy, dividing reactions into exo- and endothermic reactions.
Based on the electronic theory of the structure of matter, one of the most complex and information-intensive types of reactions is studied - redox reactions. The most important concepts here are:
oxidation state;
oxidation processes / recovery;
oxidizing and reducing agent;
the actual redox reaction.
The formed concept of the redox reaction must be introduced into the general system of knowledge about the chemical process. The need for students to operate with the concept of “oxidation-reduction reaction” requires that they develop the ability to use chemical language. A generalized skill of students when studying redox reactions will be the ability to draw up equations for specific reactions.
When studying various classes of inorganic compounds and systematizing chemical elements, knowledge about redox reactions is supplemented, deepened and improved (familiarization with specific oxidizing agents and reducing agents occurs). A qualitatively new stage in the study of redox reactions will be the theory of electrolytes, in which the teacher introduces students to a new type of oxidizing and reducing agents - ions, identifies and reveals the patterns of such reactions in aqueous solutions. When studying nitrogen and phosphorus, students' knowledge is replenished with new specific examples of oxidation and reduction. The reactions of nitric acid with metals are analyzed, and the skills of drawing up equations are improved. Next, electrolysis and corrosion of metals are studied as a type of redox processes.
Upon completion of student training, the general classification of chemical reactions should look like this:
Figure 2. Classification of chemical reactions.
2.3 Formation of knowledge about ion exchange reactions
Studying the theory of electrolytic dissociation allows us to deepen and expand knowledge about the reaction, differentiate the features of the course of exchange and redox reactions. Students acquire the ability to compose ionic and ion-electronic reaction equations and recognize electrolyte exchange reactions. Particular attention is paid to the problematic study of these reactions, mechanisms and patterns of their occurrence. The study of electrolyte reactions focuses on exchange reactions.
Ion exchange reactions are even more abstract compared to conventional molecular ones. As a result, the path to their knowledge should be as follows: a brief ionic equation, a complete ionic equation - an equation in molecular form - experiment.
Consider, for example, methods for developing knowledge about ion exchange reactions in the light of the theory of acid-base interactions.
Most ion exchange reactions in aqueous solutions can be considered in the light of concepts of acid-base interactions.
From the standpoint of the protolytic theory, acids are particles (ions, molecules) capable of donating a proton (proton donors), and bases are particles capable of attaching a proton (proton acceptors). For example, acetic acid CH 3 COOH in an aqueous solution donates protons to a base, the role of which is played by a water molecule. In this case, hydrozonium ions H 3 O + and a new base CH 3 COO - are formed. In such a system, a weak acid corresponds to a strong base CH 3 COO -. They are called conjugate acid and base, respectively. In a conjugate system, a strong acid corresponds to a weak base, and vice versa, a weak acid corresponds to a strong base. In such systems, different ions always compete with each other to bind a proton, for example in the system:
NO 2 - + HSO 4 - =HNO 2 + SO 4 2-.
The ions NO 2 - and SO 4 2- compete. Nitrite ions bind protons more strongly, since HNO 2 is a weaker acid than HSO 4 -.
To teach schoolchildren the ability to analyze the course of reactions, it is necessary to apply the empirical rules that are most understandable to them:
Exchange reactions in aqueous solutions proceed in the direction of the formation of a weak electrolyte, an insoluble or slightly soluble substance, or a gaseous product.
Strong acids displace weak acids from salt solutions. Heavier and less volatile acids displace less heavy and more volatile acids from salt solutions. The equilibrium in these cases is shifted towards the formation of a weaker or more volatile acid.
Strong bases displace weaker bases from salt solutions.
Strong electrolytes in dilute solutions have almost the same degree of dissociation and dissociate irreversibly. Medium and weak ones differ in the degree of dissociation and dissociate reversibly.
Ion exchange reactions in aqueous media are essentially reversible. A necessary condition for irreversibility is the removal of at least one of the reaction products. In the case when the initial substances and reaction products contain weak electrolytes, the exchange reactions are always reversible and we can only talk about a shift in equilibrium towards the weaker electrolyte.
To effectively consolidate the rules when analyzing ionic equations, you can invite students to use tables containing rows of acids, arranged in descending order of dissociation constant values (see appendix). Strong acids are shown as electrolytes of approximately equal strength. This table is used together with the corresponding exercises.
We can conditionally assume that the equilibrium of reactions in which the initial and resulting acids differ in ionization constants by at least one order of magnitude is practically shifted towards the weaker electrolyte. When solving problems, you can also use a displacement table of acids (see appendix), in which the formulas of acids in a row and column are arranged in descending order of dissociation constant. The direction of the arrow at the intersection of a row and a column indicates the acid being displaced or the equilibrium shifting towards the corresponding acid. Double arrows indicate the establishment of equilibrium at approximately equal concentrations of acids. The proposed table can also be part of a set of reference materials for tests and exams.
2.4 Formation of knowledge about the kinetics of chemical reactions
Questions of the kinetics of chemical processes and chemical equilibrium are the most difficult not only for students, but also for teachers. When studying this material, a method based on students’ own cognitive activity is quite advantageous and promising. According to this method, the teacher does not explain new material, but organizes the cognitive activity of students, who observe observations, carry out calculations, model, find answers to questions posed by the teacher, and comprehend the results of their own activities. Properly organized cognitive activity leads schoolchildren to certain conclusions and the independent creation of knowledge.
All educational material is divided into 6 lessons:
The rate of a chemical reaction.
dependence of the rate of a chemical reaction on external factors.
The influence of temperature on the rate of a chemical reaction.
5-6. Chemical equilibrium and its displacement.
So, let's take a closer look at each stage of knowledge formation on this topic.
Lesson 1. Rate of a chemical reaction
The discussion of the new material begins with a demonstration of the following experiment: the interaction of hydrochloric acid with magnesium and iron. Students see that these two reactions proceed differently: with iron the reaction is much slower than with magnesium. Thus, the teacher leads students to the conclusion that chemical reactions can be characterized by certain rates.
Before students can come to an understanding of the rate of a chemical reaction, it is necessary to discuss the general "concept of rate." To do this, students are asked questions:
What is mechanical movement? (This is the length of the path traveled by the physical body per unit of time).
What changes over time as the film rolls? (The number of scrolled frames changes).
Each time the teacher emphasizes that the speed of a process is a change in some quantity per unit of time.
Now we need to find a quantity that changes over time during a chemical reaction. The teacher reminds that a chemical reaction occurs when particles collide. It is clear that the more often these collisions occur, the higher the reaction speed will be. Based on this, students are asked to formulate a definition of the rate of a chemical reaction. After listening to the assumptions, the teacher leads the students to a more precise definition: the rate of a chemical reaction is the number of collisions or the number of elementary reaction events per unit time. But it is impossible to calculate the number of collisions, so it is necessary to find another quantity that also changes over time during the course of a chemical reaction. The starting substances are converted into reaction products, which means the amount of the substance changes.
The change in any value is found as the difference between the initial and final values and is denoted by the Greek letter Δ (delta). Since the initial amount of the starting substance is greater than the final amount, then:
Δ n = n 1 – n 2.
To measure reaction rates, you need to calculate how the amount of a substance changes per unit time:
If a reaction occurs in a solution or gaseous environment, then when comparing the rates of different reactions, it is necessary to take into account not just the amount of the substance, but the amount of the substance per unit volume, that is, the molar concentration, which is calculated by the formula:
C = 
and measured in mol/l.
So, the rate of a reaction in a solution is the change in the concentration of a substance per unit time:
∆C = C 1 – C 2; W=
The discussion begins again on the issue of measuring rate by changing the concentration of reaction products and deriving a rate formula for such a case. When deriving this formula, it turns out that it is identical to the previous one. Students then derive the unit of measurement for the rate of a chemical reaction from the formula: [W] = 
The teacher makes a general conclusion: the rate of a reaction is the change in the amount or concentration of starting substances or reaction products per unit time.
Next, the teacher teaches students how to calculate the speed in the experiment: to 10 ml. Add the same volume of 0.1 M sodium thiosulfate solution to a 0.1 M hydrochloric acid solution. Using a metronome or stopwatch, we count the time from the start of pouring the solutions until the end of the reaction (turbidity), the speed is about 7 seconds. The rate can be determined by the concentration of one of the starting substances, and the final reaction should be considered equal to 0. Then we get:
W= 
.
The question is then discussed: Does the reaction rate remain constant throughout the chemical process or does it change? In order for students to come to the correct conclusion, the teacher asks leading questions:
Does the amount of starting materials change during the reaction?
How does the number of particle collisions change with decreasing concentration?
Schoolchildren conclude that the rate of a chemical reaction decreases over time. To confirm this fact, students are offered the following task: for a reaction proceeding in accordance with the equation
C4H9OH + HCl = C4H9Cl + HOH
The concentration of one of the substances was determined experimentally at different time intervals.
How will the rate of this reaction change over time?
Students calculate the rate of a chemical reaction in the first time period, then in the second, and so on:
W 1 = 
= 0.0023 mol/l with W 2 = 
= 0.0019 mol/l s
W 3 = 
= 0.0014 mol/l s W 4 == 0.0009 mol/l s
Figure 3. Dependence of reaction speed on time.
Based on the calculated speed values, a graph of the reaction speed versus time is plotted. The use of such small quantities causes difficulty for students, so for ease of construction the speed is multiplied by 10 3.
It is important to draw students' attention to the fact that the speeds are averaged, and for more accurate calculations it is necessary to reduce the time interval. In this regard, points are placed in the middle of time periods.
Analyzing the graph. The teacher once again formulates the main conclusion of the lesson: over time, the rate of a chemical reaction decreases.
Lesson 2. Dependence of the rate of a chemical reaction on external factors
At the beginning of the lesson, homework is checked, similar to what was solved in the previous lesson. In parallel to this, it is discussed why the rate of a chemical reaction decreases over time (the amount of starting substances decreases, and if the reaction occurs in solution, then their concentrations). Reducing the amount of starting substances leads to the fact that particles collide with each other less often, and therefore the rate of the chemical reaction decreases. It turns out that the rate of a chemical reaction depends on the concentration of the starting substances.
This conclusion must be confirmed experimentally: consider the reaction between solutions of sodium thiosulfate of different concentrations and hydrochloric acid (0.1 M). We dilute the previously prepared solution of 0.1 M sodium thiosulfate: 2.5 ml in the first glass. Na 2 S 2 O 3 + 5 ml solution. water; in the second 5 ml. Na 2 S 2 O 3 + 2.5 ml solution. water; pour 7.5 ml into the third. undiluted Na 2 S 2 O 3 solution.
During the experiment, one of the students assists the teacher. The metronome is started simultaneously with the addition of 2.5 ml to each glass. of hydrochloric acid. The moment of draining the solutions is considered zero, then the time from the beginning of the reaction to turbidity is counted. The assistant writes down on the board the reaction time in each glass.
1st glass – 23s.
2nd glass – 15s.
3rd glass – 7s.
Based on changes in the concentration of hydrochloric acid, we calculate the reaction rates and draw a graph:
W 1 = 0.043 mol/l s W 2 = 0.067 mol/l s W 4 = 0.143 mol/l s
Rice. 4. Dependence of reaction rate on concentration.
Drawing a graph takes time, but it provides irreplaceable scientific research skills, which means it develops students’ thinking. Thus, students, analyzing the graph, conclude that the rate of a chemical reaction depends on the concentration
reacting substances. After this, the teacher asks the question: will concentration affect the rate of reaction of gaseous and solid substances? The concentration of a gas is proportional to pressure, so changing the pressure (and therefore the concentration) changes the rate of the reaction. Solid substances do not fall under this dependence, since pressure does not have a significant effect on them (except for very large ones). Thus, students begin to realize that the rate of chemical processes can be controlled. The teacher should emphasize that this is especially important for chemical industries (those industries that are based on reactions that occur most quickly are the most profitable). At the same time, some reactions are undesirable and their speed must be slowed down (for example, metal corrosion processes). Therefore, it is so important to know what the speed of a chemical reaction depends on.
Next, we discuss how the nature of a substance (its composition, type, bond strength) affects the rate of a chemical reaction. Students are asked to consider an example: the interaction of oxygen and hydrogen occurs instantly, but the interaction of nitrogen and hydrogen occurs very slowly. The teacher provides the following data: to break bonds in nitrogen molecules, the energy required is 942 kJ/mol, and in oxygen molecules - 494 kJ/mol. Now students understand that stronger nitrogen molecules are more difficult to react and the rate of such a reaction is very low. That is, students are led to the conclusion that the rate of a chemical reaction depends on the nature of the reacting substances.
Then the influence of the state of aggregation of a substance on the reaction rate is discussed. Students independently carry out the reaction between PbNO 3 and KJ in crystalline form and in solution and conclude that the rate of the chemical reaction depends on the state of aggregation of the substance. It should be added that reactions between gaseous substances proceed even faster and are often accompanied by an explosion. Collisions between particles of gases and in solution occur throughout the entire volume, and reactions involving solids occur only on the surface.
Then how can you increase the rate of chemical reactions involving solids? The teacher leads students to the idea that it is necessary to increase the contact surface, that is, to crush the substance. Students explore the influence of this factor using the example of the interaction of a piece of marble with hydrochloric acid and marble chips with hydrochloric acid. The conclusion is formulated again: the reaction rate depends on the degree of grinding of the solid.
Lesson 3. The effect of temperature on the rate of reaction
The discussion of the new material begins with a demonstration of the interaction of 0.1 M solutions of sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric acid. At room temperature and at a temperature 10˚C above room temperature. To do this, the solutions are heated in a water bath with constant stirring. Experience shows that at room temperature the solution becomes cloudy after 11 seconds, and at elevated temperatures – after 5 seconds. Students independently calculate the speeds of both processes:
W 1 = 
= 0.009 mol/l with W 2 = 
= 0.02mol/l s
Thus, the rate of reaction is directly proportional to temperature. Next, the students, together with the teacher, calculate how many times the reaction rate increased when the temperature increased by 10˚C
γ =
.
The number γ is the temperature coefficient of the rate of a given reaction. The temperature coefficient shows how many times the reaction rate increases when the temperature increases by 10˚C.
To reinforce the concept of the temperature coefficient of reaction rate, students solve a series of tasks of increasing complexity. An example of a problem at a more complex level could be the following: the temperature coefficient of the reaction rate is 3. How many times does the reaction rate increase when the temperature increases from 20 to 50˚C? To solve this problem, you can give a ready-made formula, but then students will not catch the essence. Therefore, it is better to derive the formula logically. Let us assume that the initial rate of the chemical reaction is 1 mol/l ּ s, i.e. at a temperature of 30˚C the reaction rate is:
Now let's calculate the reaction rate at 40˚C
(W 3) and at 50˚С (W 4):
W 3 = W 2 γ = 9 mol/l s
W 4 = W 3 γ = 27 mol/l s
From these data it is clear that it is possible to derive a formula for calculating the reaction rate when the temperature increases by several tens of degrees. From the calculations it is clear that the temperature coefficient must be raised to a power equal to the difference between the initial and final temperatures divided by 10:
,
those
once.
This formula is a mathematical expression of van't Hoff's rule. You can tell students that the famous Dutch scientist J. van't Hoff came to the conclusion that the rate of most reactions with every 10˚C increase in temperature increases by 2-4 times based on experimental studies.
W 2 = W 1 γ = 3 mol/l s
Now we need to understand why temperature affects the reaction rate. The teacher leads students to the idea that the energy imparted to a substance when heated is spent on destroying the chemical bonds of the starting substances.
By demonstrating the following figure, the teacher shows how the electron density of chemical bonds changes when iodine interacts with hydrogen:
Rice. 5 Scheme of PAA formation using the example of the interaction of iodine and hydrogen.
When molecules collide, an electron cloud common to 4 atoms is formed. It is unstable: the electron density from the region between the atoms of the starting substances seems to flow into the region between the iodine and hydrogen atoms.
Such an intermediate compound formed by two molecules is called an intermediate activated complex (PAC). It exists for a short time and breaks down into two molecules (in this case HJ). For the formation of PAA, energy is required to destroy the chemical bonds inside the colliding molecules. This energy is called activation energy.
Activation energy is the energy required for 1 mole particles to form an activated complex.
G 
Graphically this process looks like this:
Thus, activation energy is the energy barrier that the starting substances must overcome in order to turn into reaction products: the lower the activation energy, the higher the rate of the chemical reaction.
Summing up the lesson, the teacher formulates a conclusion: when heated, the rate of a chemical reaction increases because the number of molecules capable of overcoming the energy barrier increases.
Lesson 4. Catalysis
The concept of “catalysis” is also formed on the basis of experiment. Students are shown a bottle of hydrogen peroxide. They see that there are no signs of the reaction progressing. But students know that hydrogen peroxide decomposes over time. Then the teacher asks: how can one speed up the decomposition process. Most likely, answers will follow about increasing the temperature to the point at which decomposition will be noticeable. The teacher demonstrates the experience of heating hydrogen peroxide. When a smoldering splinter is presented, students see that it goes out (which means the oxygen released is clearly not enough to maintain combustion). That is, heating slightly increases the rate of a chemical reaction. Then the teacher adds manganese dioxide MnO 2 to the bottle with hydrogen peroxide. Even without a smoldering splinter, students observe the instantaneous release of gas. Then, instead of MnO 2, the teacher adds cobalt (II) oxide CoO (the reaction proceeds even more violently), and then carries out the same experiment with CuO (in this case the reaction proceeds very slowly).
The teacher reports that substances that can increase the rate of a chemical reaction are called catalysts.
Through experience, schoolchildren were convinced that not every substance can be a catalyst and accelerate a chemical process. Hence the conclusion is that the action of catalysts is selective.
Then the teacher draws the students' attention to the fact that the substances that accelerated the reaction were not consumed themselves. If you filter them and dry them, it turns out that their mass has not changed. To explain this fact, the teacher schematically shows the process of a catalytic reaction:
Stage 1. A + K = AK
Stage 2. AK + B = AB + K.
Thus, substance K remains quantitatively unchanged.
Now it is necessary to understand the reason why catalysts increase the rate of chemical reactions. The increase in the reaction rate under the influence of a catalyst is explained by the fact that each of the two stages with a catalyst has a lower energy barrier compared to the direct reaction of the initial substances.
Lesson 5-6. Chemical equilibrium and its displacement
The lesson begins with updating the knowledge acquired in previous lessons, in particular about the energy barrier and the formation of PAK.
Moving on to a new topic, the teacher finds out what PAA turns into: reaction products or starting substances. Students come to the conclusion that both processes are actually possible.
Students are shown a diagram:
Rice. 7. Reversibility of the reaction.
The transformation of starting substances into reaction products is called a forward reaction, and the transformation of products into starting substances is called a reverse reaction. The teacher tells students that the reaction of iodine with hydrogen, taken as an example, is a reversible process, and in fact, most reactions are reversible.
Next, students are informed that over time, the rate of the forward reaction decreases, and the rate of the reverse reaction first equals 0 and then increases. To illustrate this more clearly, the teacher shows students a graph, which they transfer to their notebooks.
Analyzing the graph, students come to the conclusion that at some point in time the speeds of the forward and reverse reactions equalize. This fact indicates the onset of equilibrium. Students are asked the question: do both reactions stop when chemical equilibrium occurs?
If the reactions stop, then if the conditions affecting the rate of the forward or reverse reaction change, nothing will happen.
To test this fact, students are shown the following experiment: two test tubes, closed with stoppers and connected by a glass tube, are filled with nitrogen dioxide. NO 2 dimerizes when cooled, and when heated the reverse reaction occurs:
NO 2 (brown) N 2 O 4 (colorless)
Place one test tube in hot water, the other in a glass with pieces of ice. When cooled, dimerization increases and the color of the mixture becomes less intense. When heated, N 2 O 4 decomposes and the color of the mixture intensifies. A change in gas color when conditions change indicates that reactions continue to occur. If you remove the test tubes from the beaker, after some time the color in them will even out. There is a balance. Students are again asked the question: are there reactions taking place, and why are there no visible changes observed (reactions are taking place because their speed can be changed, there are no visible changes because equilibrium has occurred).
Thus, students realize that equilibrium can be changed (shifted) by changing the conditions of the process.
After this, they begin to study Le Chatelier's principle. As an epigraph to the study, the teacher quotes the words of a French scientist: “A change in any factor that can influence the state of chemical equilibrium of a system causes a reaction in it that seeks to counteract the change made.” That is, by changing any characteristic of the system, the equilibrium shifts so as to reduce this change.
The teacher asks you to think about what factors influence the shift in balance. Students' responses include concentration, temperature, and pressure. Moreover, they had already observed the effect of temperature in an experiment with nitric oxide. The study of the effect of concentration is carried out in the experiment of the interaction of potassium thiocyanate with iron (III) chloride:
KCNS + FeCl 3 = Fe(CNS) 3 + KCl
By increasing the concentration of the starting substances, the color of the solution becomes more intense, and when KCl is added to the reacted solution, the color becomes less saturated. Thus, students see that an increase in the concentration of starting substances leads to a greater formation of reaction products (an increase in the rate of the forward reaction), and therefore to a shift in equilibrium to the right and vice versa.
Students are no longer studying the influence of the next factor - pressure - not experimentally, but by modeling the reaction process. Students already know that pressure primarily affects reactions between gases. The teacher formulates Le Chatelier’s general principle: if a system in equilibrium is affected by changing concentration, pressure, temperature, then the equilibrium will shift in the direction of the reaction that will reduce this effect.
The effect of pressure is usually considered using the example of ammonia synthesis reaction:
N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3.
Students are reminded of the relationship between pressure and temperature. Since the dependence is directly proportional, an increase in pressure, and therefore the volume of the initial gas components, shifts the equilibrium towards the formation of ammonia (towards a decrease in volume). The issue of shifting equilibrium under conditions of decreased pressure is also discussed. Schematically, both conclusions can be written as follows:
N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3.
Decrease p.
Increase in river .
The teacher formulates the conclusion: an increase in pressure causes a shift in equilibrium towards the reaction that leads to the formation of fewer gases, therefore, to a decrease in pressure. A decrease in pressure causes a shift in equilibrium towards the reaction that leads to the formation of more gases, therefore, to an increase in pressure.
Students then perform a series of exercises following these rules.
The effect of temperature is once again proposed to be considered using the following reaction as an example:
CaCO 3 (tv) = CaO (tv) + CO 2 (g) – Q.
By independently analyzing this equation, students realize that while the forward reaction is endothermic, the reverse reaction is exothermic. Students may have difficulty completing these reactions, so the teacher can ask guiding questions about how the temperature of a system changes when heat is absorbed (decreases) and how it changes when heat is released (increases). Having come to such conclusions, students themselves formulate the conclusion: when the temperature increases, equilibrium shifts towards the endothermic (direct), and when it decreases, towards the exothermic (in this case, reverse).
The completeness of the proposed material in this method meets educational standards. This method allows you to activate students' thinking.
Conclusion
In conclusion, I would like to once again note those methods and techniques that are used in the formation of the main sections of the concept of a chemical reaction.
The main role in the study of each component of the concept of “chemical reaction” is given to the chemical experiment. It most clearly reflects the external signs and phenomena that occur during interaction, and also reflects the influence of external factors on the reacting substances. He solves diverse problems of education (labor, cultural, ethical, worldview, environmental); development (memory, thinking, imagination, creative independence); training. In the learning process, it serves as a source of knowledge, performs the function of a method (knowledge of chemical objects, testing educational hypotheses, solving educational problems), as well as the function of a teaching tool (evidence of the truth of judgments, illustration, application of knowledge and skills), a means of educating and developing students. When studying many topics, chemical experiment is used in parallel with modeling: writing chemical formulas of substances, compiling process models from them, drawing graphic illustrations of processes. Modeling allows us to more fully reflect the changes that occur during chemical reactions. It is necessary to use modeling, in particular when composing equations of chemical reactions, in such a way as to avoid the formalism of students’ knowledge as much as possible: when composing formulas for substances, simulating the processes occurring with them, they must clearly understand that behind chemical formulas there are specific substances (it is not the formula that reacts, but substance). In this regard, the interpretation of reaction equations must be correct. For example, in the reaction: 2H 2 + O 2 = 2H 2 O, the formulation of the process should be as follows: 2 moles of hydrogen react with 1 mole of oxygen and 2 moles of water are formed (and not two al-two plus o-two equals two al-two-o).
The use of various outline diagrams makes it easier for students to memorize voluminous material. For example, using the diagram “The rate of a chemical reaction and its dependence on various factors” (see appendix) helps to assimilate, remember and reproduce accumulated knowledge on this topic. Such schemes can consist of several blocks and are compiled step by step as each block is studied.
When studying various classes of simple and complex compounds, the teacher can use mineral collections. So, for example, when studying the topic “Sulfur and its compounds,” it is necessary to familiarize students with the mineral itself in order to study its physical properties, which also allows one to overcome the formalism of knowledge. In addition, for the same purpose, conduct an excursion for students, during which they can observe the formation of a sulfur film on puddles, stones, and grass after rain near hydrogen sulfide sources. Using the example of sulfur-containing minerals (sulfates, sulfides), students can supplement their knowledge of redox processes occurring in nature.
Particular attention is paid to methods that allow students to intensify independent activity. It is known that the time of beginning to study chemistry at school (8th grade) corresponds to the teenage period of personality development of students (11-12 – 14-15 years). At this age, the most attractive forms of activities for a teenager are those that allow them to show independence and initiative. He learns ways of acting more easily when the teacher only helps him. Examples of activities that actively use this principle are discussed in more detail in the paragraphs “Introduction of the concept of a chemical reaction”, “Formation of knowledge about the kinetics of chemical reactions”.
So, in the considered methodological approaches the following methods are used:
general logical: abstraction, inductive approach to deriving concepts, generalization, concretization and others.
general pedagogical: story, reasoning, conversation and others.
specific: chemical experiment, observation and explanation of chemical objects.
These methods are used in combination, since often the use of any one group of methods does not lead to effective positive results. The integration of these methods in a certain combination leads to the emergence of a method of teaching chemistry.
Interest in a subject largely depends on the form in which the teacher presents the material being studied and how captivatingly and intelligibly he explains it. It is these qualities that must be taken into account when choosing teaching methods, because only a correctly chosen method will activate interest in learning and enhance the motivation to learn.
Bibliography
Kuznetsova L. M., Dronova N. Yu., Evstigneeva T. A. On the methodology for studying chemical kinetics and chemical equilibrium // Chemistry at school. – 2001. – No. 9. – p.7.
Kuznetsova N. E. Methods of teaching chemistry: Textbook. manual for pedagogical students. Institute of Chemistry. and biol. specialist. – M.: Education, 1984. –415 p., ill.
Kuznetsova N. E. Formation of systems of concepts in teaching chemistry. – M.: Education, 1989. – 144 p.
Mukhina V. S. Developmental psychology: phenomenology of development, childhood, adolescence: Textbook for students. universities – 9th ed., stereotype. –M.: Publishing Center “Academy”, 2004. – 456 p.
Pak M. S. Fundamentals of didactics of chemistry: textbook. – St. Petersburg: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A. I. Herzen, 2004. –307 p.
Stabaldina S. T. Principles and laws of dialectics in teaching chemistry // Chemistry at school. – 2003. – No. 7. – p.16.
Trofimova I. V. Ion exchange reactions in aqueous solutions // Chemistry at school. – 2005. – No. 10. – pp. 10-16.
Turlakova E. V. Use of outline diagrams in studying the patterns of chemical reactions. // Chemistry at school. – 1997. – No. 1. – p.6.
Chemistry. 8th grade: Lesson plans (based on the textbook by L. S. Guzei and others). I half of the year / Author. – comp. S. Yu. Diblenko. – Volgograd: Teacher, 2004. – 144 p.
Chemistry. 8th grade: Lesson plans (based on the textbook by L. S. Guzei and others). II half of the year / Author. – comp. S. Yu. Diblenko. – Volgograd: Teacher, 2004. – 168 p.
Chemistry. 9th grade: Lesson plans (based on the textbook by L. S. Guzei and others). I half of the year / Author. – comp. S. Yu. Diblenko, E. A. Smirnova, S. M. Kolmykova. – Volgograd: Teacher, 2005. – 169 p.
Khodakov Yu. V., Epshtein D. A., Gloriozov P. A. et al. Teaching chemistry in grades 7-8: Method. manual for teachers. – M.: Education, 1969. – 318 p.
Chernobelskaya G. M. Methods of teaching chemistry in secondary school: Proc. for students higher textbook establishments. – M.: .: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2000. – 336 p.
Shelinsky G.I. Urgent issues of formation of the most important chemical concepts of chemistry at the initial stage of education // Chemistry at school. – 2001. – No. 5. – p.17.
Shilov V.I. Use of minerals in the formation of chemical concepts // Chemistry at school. – 2006. – No. 3. – p.32.
Application
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Series of acids |
Order of the dissociation constant |
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1. NSJ 4 , HI, HBr, HCI,NMP0 4 , H 2 S0 4 , H 2 Se0 4, H 2 Cr 2 0 7 , HN0 3 |
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2. N 4 R 2 0 7 2 Cr0 4 = nude 3 = НВг0 3 ≈ H 2 S 2 0 3 |
10 -1 |
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3. NSg 2 ABOUT 7 - = NSJ 2 = HSe0 4 - ≈ H 2 S0 3 = NSABOUT - 4 ≈ H.S. 2 0 3 4 = N 3 P0 3 |
10 -2 |
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4. N 2 Te =H 2 Se0 3 = N 2 Te0 3 H 3 As0 4 3 P0 4 = N 3 R 2 ABOUT 4 |
10 -3 |
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5. H 2 Se 2 IN 4 0 7 HF= NN0 2 |
10 -4 |
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6. CH 3 UNS |
10 -5 |
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7. N 2 P0 3 = H 2 As0 4 4 = N 2 C0 3 |
10 -6 |
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8. NTeOz 6 Te0 6 = NSJ =H 2 S = H.S.0 3 = N 2 P0 4 |
10 -8 |
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9. NWYU =HSe0 3 - |
10 -9 |
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10.H 2 Si0 3 = H 4 Si0 4 3 As0 3 = H 3 B0 3 + |
10 -10 |
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11. HSe"= nude 4 |
10 -11 |
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12. H 3 Si0 4 N 2 0 2 = HAsABOUT 2- |
10 -12 |
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13. H.S. - = NAYU 2 = NTe - ≈ HPO 4 2- |
10 -13 |
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14 H 2 SiO 4 2- |
10 -14 |
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15. N 2 ABOUT |
10 -16 |
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HClO 4 |
HMnO 4 |
H 2 SO 4 |
HNO 3 |
H 2 CrO 4 |
H 2 SO 3 |
HSO 4 - |
H 3 P.O. 4 |
HNO 2 |
HCrO 4 |
H 2 CO 3 |
H 2 S |
HSO 3 |
H 2 P.O. 4 |
H 2 SiO 3 |
N.H. 4 + |
HCO 3 - |
H.S. - |
HPO 4 2- |
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HClO 4 |
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H.M. 4 |
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H 2 SO 4 |
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HNO 3 |
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H 2 C 4 |
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H 2 O 3 |
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HSO 4 - |
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H 3 P.O. 4 |
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HNO 2 |
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HCr - |
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H 2 CO 3 |
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H 2 S |
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HSO 3 - |
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H 2 P.O. 4 - |
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H 2 SiO 3 |
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N.H. 4 + |
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HCO 3 - |
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H.S. - |
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HPO 4 2- |
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