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Proto-Slavic is the proto-language from which the Slavic languages originated. No written monuments of the Proto-Slavic language have survived, so the language was reconstructed based on a comparison of reliably attested Slavic and ... ... Wikipedia
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Entire fantasy novels have been written today about the origin of the Ukrainian language and the etymology of Ukrainian words.
Why are there many words from Sanskrit in the Ukrainian language?
Comparing different languages, scientists came to the conclusion that some of them are very close to each other, while others are more distant relatives. And there are some that have nothing in common with each other. For example, it has been established that Ukrainian, Latin, Norwegian, Tajik, Hindi, English, etc. are related. But Japanese, Hungarian, Finnish, Turkish, Etruscan, Arabic, Basque, etc. have nothing to do with Ukrainian or, say, Spanish.
It is proved that several millennia BC there was a certain community of people (tribes) who spoke close dialects. We don't know where it was or at what exact time. Perhaps 3-5 thousand years BC. It is assumed that these tribes lived somewhere in the Northern Mediterranean, perhaps even in the Dnieper region. The Indo-European proto-language has not survived to our times. The oldest written monuments that have survived to this day were written a thousand years BC in the language of the ancient inhabitants of India, which has the name “Sanskrit”. Being the oldest, this language is considered the closest to Indo-European.
Scientists reconstruct the parent language on the basis of the laws of change of sounds and grammatical forms, moving, so to speak, in the opposite direction: from modern languages to a common language. Reconstructed words are given in etymological dictionaries, ancient grammatical forms - in a writer from the history of grammars.
Modern Indo-European languages have inherited most of the roots from the time of the former unity. In different languages, related words sometimes sound very different, but these differences are subject to certain sound patterns.
Compare Ukrainian and English words that have a common origin: day - day, night - night, sun - sun, mother - mother, blue - son, eye - eye, tree - tree, water - water, two - two, might - might, cook - swear, command - will. Thus, Ukrainian, like all other Indo-European languages, has many words in common with Sanskrit and other related languages - Greek, Icelandic, Old Persian, Armenian, etc., not to mention close Slavic ones - Russian, Slovak, Polish ...
As a result of the migration of peoples, wars, conquests of some peoples by others, linguistic dialects moved away from each other, new languages were formed, old ones disappeared. Indo-Europeans settled throughout Europe and penetrated into Asia (that's why they got such a name).
The Proto-Indo-European language family left behind, in particular, the following groups of languages: Romance (dead Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Moldavian, etc.); Germanic (Dead Gothic, English, German, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish, Dutch, Afrikaans, etc.); Celtic (Welsh, Scottish, Irish, etc.), Indo-Iranian (dead Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu, Farsi, Tajik, Ossetian, Gypsy, possibly also dead Scythian, etc.); Baltic (dead Prussian, Lithuanian, Latvian, etc.), Slavic (dead Old Slavonic, or “Old Bulgarian”, Ukrainian, Bulgarian, Polish, Great Russian, Belarusian, etc.). Separate Indo-European branches started up the Greek, Armenian, Albanian languages, which have no close relatives. Quite a lot of Indo-European languages did not live up to historical times.
Why are the Indo-European languages so different from each other?
As a rule, the formation of a language is associated with the geographical isolation of its speakers, migration, the conquest of some peoples by others. Differences in Indo-European languages are explained by interaction with other - often non-Indo-European - languages. One language, displacing another, received certain signs of the conquered language and, accordingly, differed in these signs from its relative (the repressed language, which left its traces, is called the substrate), and also experienced grammatical and lexical changes. Perhaps there are certain internal patterns in the development of languages, which over time “detach” it from related dialects. Although, apparently, the reason for the appearance of any internal patterns is the influence of other (substrate) languages.
So, in ancient times, numerous languages \u200b\u200bwere spread in Europe, the influence of which led to the current motley language picture. The development of the Greek language was influenced, in particular, by Illyrian (Albanian) and Etruscan. In English - Norman and various Celtic dialects, in French - Gallic, in Great Russian - Finno-Ugric languages, as well as "Old Bulgarian". The Finno-Ugric influence in the Great Russian language gave a weakening of unstressed vowels (in particular, akanye: milk - malako), fixing g on the spot G, stunning consonants at the end of a syllable.
It is believed that at a certain stage of linguistic evolution, before the formation of separate Slavic and Baltic languages, there was a Balto-Slavic unity, since these languages have a huge number of common words, morphemes and even grammatical forms. It is assumed that the common ancestors of the Balts and Slavs inhabited the territories from the Northern Dnieper to the Baltic Sea. However, as a result of migration processes, this unity broke up.
At the linguistic level, this was reflected in a surprising way: the Proto-Slavic language arises as a separate language (and not a Balto-Slavic dialect) with the beginning of the so-called law of the open syllable. The Proto-Slavs received this language law by interacting with some non-Indo-European people, whose language did not tolerate the combination of several consonants. Its essence boiled down to the fact that all syllables ended in a vowel sound.
How do we know about this law? First of all, from the most ancient monuments of Slavic writing (X-XII centuries). Short vowel sounds were transmitted in writing with the letters “ъ” (something between short “o” and “s”) and “ь” (short “i”). The tradition of writing “ь” at the end of words after consonants, which passed into the Great Russian language according to the Kyiv tradition of transmitting Church Slavonic, survived until the beginning of the 20th century, although, of course, these vowels were never read in Great Russian.
What language did the Slavs speak?
This language existed from the 1st millennium BC. until the middle of the 2nd millennium AD. Of course, there was no holistic language in the modern sense of the word, much less its literary version. We are talking about close dialects, which were characterized by common features.
Some scientists believe that the substrate language for the Proto-Slavs, which “launched” the law of the open syllable, was the non-Indo-European language of the Trypillians, who inhabited the present Ukrainian lands (the substrate language is an absorbed language that left phonetic and other traces in the victorious language).
It was he who did not tolerate clusters of consonants, syllables in him ended only in vowels. And it was allegedly from Trypillians that such words of unknown origin came to us, characterized by the openness of syllables and a strict order of sounds (consonant - vowel), such as mo-gi-la, ko-by-la and some others. Like, from the Trypillia language, Ukrainian - through the mediation of other languages and Proto-Slavic dialects - inherited its melody and some phonetic features (for example, the alternation of y-v, і-y, which helps to avoid dissonant clusters of sounds).
vUnfortunately, it is impossible to either refute or confirm this hypothesis, since no reliable data on the language of the Trypillians (as, by the way, of the Scythians) has been preserved. At the same time, it is known that the substratum in a certain territory (phonetic and other traces of the defeated language) is indeed very tenacious and can be transmitted through several linguistic “eras”, even through the mediation of languages that have not survived to this day.
The relative unity of the Proto-Slavic dialects lasted until the 5th-6th centuries AD. Where the Proto-Slavs lived is not exactly known. It is believed that somewhere north of the Black Sea - in the Dnieper, Danube, in the Carpathians or between the Vistula and the Oder. In the middle of the first millennium, as a result of violent migration processes, the Proto-Slavic unity broke up. The Slavs settled all of central Europe - from the Mediterranean to the North Sea.
Since then, the proto-languages of modern Slavic languages began to form. The starting point for the emergence of new languages was the fall of the law of the open syllable. As mysterious as its origin. We do not know what caused this fall - another substratum or some kind of internal law of linguistic evolution, which began to operate in the days of Proto-Slavic unity. However, the law of the open syllable did not survive in any Slavic language, although it left deep traces in each of them. By and large, the phonetic and morphological differences between these languages come down to how different the reflexes caused by the fall of an open syllable are in each of the languages.
How did modern Slavic languages appear?
This law fell into disrepair unevenly. In one dialect, the sing-song pronunciation (“tra-ta-ta”) survived longer, in others, the phonetic “revolution” took place faster. As a result, the Proto-Slavic language gave three subgroups of dialects: South Slavic (modern Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian, Slovenian, etc.); West Slavic (Polish, Czech, Slovak, etc.); East Slavic (modern Ukrainian, Great Russian, Belarusian). In ancient times, each of the subgroups represented numerous dialects, characterized by certain common features that distinguished them from other subgroups. These dialects do not always coincide with the modern division of the Slavic languages and the settlement of the Slavs. The processes of state formation, the mutual influence of Slavic dialects, as well as foreign language elements played an important role in linguistic evolution in different periods.
Actually, the collapse of the Proto-Slavic linguistic unity could occur as follows. First, the southern (Balkan) Slavs territorially “broke away” from the rest of the tribes. This explains the fact that in their dialects the law of the open syllable lasted the longest - until the 9th-12th centuries.
Among the tribes that were the ancestors of the Eastern and Western Slavs, in contrast to the Balkans, in the middle of the first millennium, the language underwent dramatic changes. The fall of the law of the open syllable gave rise to the development of new European languages, many of which have not survived to this day.
The speakers of the Proto-Ukrainian language were scattered tribes, each of which spoke its own dialect. The glades spoke Polanian, the Derevlyans spoke Derevlyansk, the Siverians spoke Siveryan, the Uchi and Tivertsy spoke their own way, and so on. But all these dialects were characterized by common features, that is, the same consequences of the fall of the open syllable, which even now distinguish the Ukrainian language from other Slavic languages.
How do we know about how they spoke in Ukraine in ancient times?
There are two real sources of our current knowledge of ancient Ukrainian dialects. The first is written monuments, the oldest of which were written in the 10th-12th centuries. However, unfortunately, records in the language spoken by our ancestors were not kept at all. The literary language of Kyiv was the “Old Bulgarian” (Church Slavonic) language, which came to us from the Balkans. This is the language into which Cyril and Methodius translated the Bible in the 9th century. It was incomprehensible to the Eastern Slavs, since it retained the ancient law of an open syllable. In particular, it sounded short vowels after consonants, denoted by the letters "b" and "b". However, in Kyiv this language was gradually Ukrainized: short sounds were not readable, and some vowels were replaced by their own - Ukrainian. In particular, nasal vowels, which are still preserved, say, in Polish, were pronounced like ordinary ones, “Old Bulgarian” diphthongs (double vowels) were read in the Ukrainian manner. Cyril and Methodius would be very surprised to hear "their" language in the Kyiv church.
It is interesting that some scientists tried to reconstruct the so-called “Old Russian” language, which was allegedly common to all Eastern Slavs, based on ancient Kievan texts. And it turned out that in Kyiv they spoke almost the “Old Bulgarian” language, which, of course, in no way corresponded to the historical truth.
Ancient texts can be used to learn the language of our ancestors, but in a very peculiar way. This is exactly what Professor Ivan Ogienko did in the first half of the 20th century. He studied the typos, mistakes of Kievan authors and scribes, who, against their will, were influenced by the living folk language. At times, the ancient scribes “reworked” the words and the “Old Bulgarian” grammatical forms deliberately - to make it “clearer”.
The second source of our knowledge is modern Ukrainian dialects, especially those that have long remained isolated and almost not subjected to external influence. For example, the descendants of the Derevlyans still inhabit the north of the Zhytomyr region, and the Siveryans inhabit the north of the Chernihiv region. In many dialects, ancient Ukrainian phonetic, grammatical, and morphological forms have been preserved, coinciding with the misprints of Kyiv scribes and writers.
In the scientific literature, one can find other dates for the fall of short vowels among the Eastern Slavs - the 12th - 13th centuries. However, such a “lengthening of life” of the law of an open syllable is hardly justified.
When did the Ukrainian language appear?
The countdown, apparently, can be started from the middle of the first millennium - when short vowels disappeared. This is what caused the emergence of proper Ukrainian language features - as, ultimately, the features of most Slavic languages. The list of features that distinguished our parent language from other languages may be somewhat boring for non-specialists. Here are just a few of them.
The ancient Ukrainian dialects were characterized by the so-called full accord: in place of the South Slavic sound combinations ra-, la-, re-, le - in the language of our ancestors sounded -oro-, -olo-, -ere-, -ele-. For example: licorice (in “Old Bulgarian” - sweet), full (captivity), sereda (environment), darkness (gloom), etc. “Coincidences” in the Bulgarian and Russian languages are explained by the huge influence of “Old Bulgarian” on the formation of the Russian language.
The Bulgarian (South Slavic) sound combination at the beginning of the root ra-, la - answered the East Slavic ro-, lo-: robot (work), grow (grow), catch (catch). In place of the typical Bulgarian sound combination -zhd - Ukrainians had -zh-: vorozhnecha (enmity), leather (each). Bulgarian suffixes -ash-, -yushch - were answered by Ukrainian -ach-, -yuch-: howling (howling), sizzling (sizzling).
When short vowels fell after voiced consonants, in Proto-Ukrainian dialects these consonants continued to be pronounced voiced, as they are now (oak, snow, love, shelter). In Polish, stunning developed, in Great Russian too (dup, snack, lyubof, krof).
Academician Potebnya found that the disappearance of short sounds (ъ and ь) in some places “forced” to extend the pronunciation of the previous vowels “o” and “e” in a new closed syllable to compensate for the “reduction” of the word. So, sto-l (“sto-lo”) turned into “steel” (the final ъ disappeared, but the “internal” vowel became longer, turning into a double sound - a diphthong). But in forms where a vowel comes after the final consonant, the old sound has not changed: sto-lu, sto-li. Mo-stъ (“mo-hundred”) turned into mіest, muest, mіst, etc. (depending on the dialect). The diphthong eventually transformed into a regular vowel. Therefore, in the modern literary language, “i” in a closed syllable alternates with “o” and “e” in an open syllable etc.). Although some Ukrainian dialects keep ancient diphthongs in a closed syllable (kiet, popiel, rieg).
The ancient Proto-Slavic diphthongs, in particular in case endings, denoted by the letter “yat” in writing, found their continuation in the Old Ukrainian language. In some dialects, they have survived to this day, in others they have been transformed into “i” (as in the literary language): lie, on earth, mіeh, beliy, etc. By the way, Ukrainians, knowing their language, never confused the spelling “yat” and "e" in pre-revolutionary Russian orthography. In some Ukrainian dialects, the ancient diphthong was actively supplanted by the vowel “i” (lis, on earth, mіkh, white), gaining a foothold in the literary language.
Part of the phonetic and grammatical features of the Proto-Slavic language was continued in Ukrainian dialects. So, the Proto-Ukrainian inherited the ancient alternation k-ch, g-z, x-s (hand - rutsі, rіg - roses, fly - musі), which has been preserved in the modern literary language. The vocative case has long been used in our language. In dialects, the ancient form of the “fore-future” tense (I will be brav) is active, as well as the ancient indicators of person and number in past tense verbs (I - walk, we - walked, you - walk, you - holist).
The description of all these signs occupies entire volumes in the academic literature ...
What language was spoken in Kyiv in prehistoric times?
Certainly not in modern literary language. Any literary language is artificial to a certain extent - it is developed by writers, educators, cultural figures as a result of rethinking the living language. Often the literary language is alien, borrowed, and sometimes incomprehensible to the uneducated part of the population. Thus, in Ukraine from the 10th to the 18th century, the literary language was considered an artificial - Ukrainized "Old Bulgarian" language, in which most literary monuments are written, in particular, "Izborniki Svyatoslav", "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "The Tale of Time Litas", the works of Ivan Vishensky , Grigory Skovoroda, etc. The literary language was not frozen: it constantly developed, changed over the centuries, enriched with new vocabulary, its grammar was simplified. The degree of Ukrainization of texts depended on the education and "free-thinking" of the authors (the church did not approve of the penetration of the folk language into writing). This Kievan literary language, created on the basis of the “Old Bulgarian”, played a huge role in the formation of the Great Russian (“Russian”) language.
The modern literary language was formed on the basis of the Dnieper dialects - the heirs of the dialect of the annalistic glades (and, apparently, the Ants union of tribes, known from foreign historical sources) - in the first half of the 19th century thanks to the writers Kotlyarevsky, Grebinka, Kvitka-Osnovyanenko, and also Taras Shevchenko .
Consequently, before the formation of a national language, Ukrainians spoke different Ukrainian dialects, using Ukrainized “Old Bulgarian” in writing.
In the princely era in Kyiv, they spoke a language “generally understandable” for the inhabitants of the capital city (Koine), which was formed on the basis of various ancient Ukrainian tribal dialects, mainly polyans. No one has ever heard it, and it has not survived in the records. But, again, the descriptions of ancient chroniclers and scribes, as well as modern Ukrainian dialects, give an idea of this language. To present it, it is necessary, apparently, to “cross” the grammar of Transcarpathian dialects, where the ancient forms are best preserved, Chernihiv diphthongs in place of “yat” and modern “i” in a closed syllable, features of the “deep” pronunciation of vowels among the current inhabitants of the south of the Kiev region , as well as Cherkasy and Poltava regions.
Were modern Ukrainians able to understand the language spoken by the people of Kiev, say, in the first half of the 13th century (before the horde)? - Undoubtedly, yes. For a “modern” ear, it would sound like a kind of Ukrainian dialect. Something like what we hear in electric trains, in markets and construction sites of the capital.
Is it possible to call the ancient language "Ukrainian", if the word "Ukraine" itself did not exist? — You can name the language whatever you like – the essence of this does not change. The ancient Indo-European tribes also did not call their language “Indo-European”.
The laws of linguistic evolution in no way depend on the name of the language, which is given to it at different periods of history by its speakers or outsiders.
We do not know how the Proto-Slavs called their language. Perhaps there was no generalized name at all. We also do not know how the Eastern Slavs called their dialect in the prehistoric era. Most likely, each tribe had its own name and called its dialect in its own way. There is an assumption that the Slavs called their language simply “their own”.
The word "Russian" regarding the language of our ancestors appeared relatively late. This word first denoted a simple folk language - as opposed to the written "Slavic". Later, “Ruska Mova” was opposed to “Polish”, “Moscow”, as well as non-Slavic languages spoken by neighboring peoples (in different periods - Chud, Muroma, Meshchera, Polovtsy, Tatars, Khazars, Pechenegs, etc.). The Ukrainian language was called "Rus" until the 18th century.
In the Ukrainian language, the names are clearly distinguished - “Russian” and “Russian”, in contrast to Great Russian, where these names are groundlessly confused.
The word "Ukraine" also appeared relatively late. It has been found in chronicles since the 12th century, therefore, it appeared several centuries earlier.
How did other languages influence the formation of Ukrainian?
The Ukrainian language belongs to the “archaic” languages in terms of its vocabulary and grammatical structure (like, say, Lithuanian and Icelandic). Most Ukrainian words are inherited from the Indo-European parent language, as well as from Proto-Slavic dialects.
Quite a lot of words came to us from the tribes that were neighbors with our ancestors, traded with them, fought, etc. - Goths, Greeks, Turks, Ugrians, Romans, etc. (ship, bowl, poppy, Cossack, hut etc.). Ukrainian also has borrowings from “Old Bulgarian” (for example, region, blessing, ancestor), Polish (cheat sheet, funny, saber) and other Slavic. However, none of these languages influenced either the grammar or the phonetics (sound system) of the language. Myths about Polish influence are spread, as a rule, by non-specialists who have a very distant idea of both Polish and Ukrainian, the common origin of all Slavic languages.
Ukrainian is constantly updated with English, German, French, Italian, Spanish words, which is typical for any European language.
Ukrainian words similar to German
The figure shows the Germans, III century AD. In the picture - Ukrainians
In the Ukrainian language, one can find many words of Germanic origin, words common to Ukrainian and German, as well as words similar to German. Knowing these words helps in learning the German language. There are more such words in Ukrainian than in Russian.
There are several reasons and eras for the emergence of common Ukrainian-German words. The Germanic and Slavic languages belong to the Indo-European language group and arose from the common proto-language of SANSKRITA. Therefore, in the Germanic and Slavic languages there are many similar single-root words; German for example. Mutter - Ukrainian matir, mother; German glatt (smooth, slippery, dodgy) - Ukrainian. smooth. In the era of the Great Migration of Peoples, Germanic tribes (Teutons, Goths, etc.) passed through the lands of present-day Ukraine, including through the Lower Dnieper and Volhynia, for several centuries (in the 1st millennium AD). In Volhynia, the Eastern Goths were in the II - V centuries. AD Part of the German-speaking population did not go west along with the majority of their fellow tribesmen, but continued to live in the lands of present-day Ukraine. The Eastern Slavs appeared in Volhynia and the Dnieper region at about the same time, in the first half of the first millennium of a new era. Rare settlements of some German-speaking tribes interspersed with settlements of the Slavs. The inhabitants of these villages gradually merged with the Eastern Slavs and transferred to the latter part of their vocabulary. The German-speaking population influenced the language and culture of the Eastern Slavs, and later became related and merged with the Slavs. The ancient origin in the Ukrainian language of words related to Germanic is confirmed by the fact that among these words there are many such that denote the basic concepts of life (buduvati, dakh). In the Kyiv region, there is still a settlement GERMANOVKA, known by this name for more than 1100 years. In the ninth century AD, and, perhaps, even earlier, close communication between Rus' and the Varangians began, who brought with them from Scandinavia the language of the North Germanic (Scandinavian) group. From the Varangians, who came at the end of the 9th century. led by Prince Oleg to Kyiv, these words got into the language of the glades and drevlyans who lived in these places. The Glade and the Drevlyans spoke their own languages close to each other. And since the time of Christianization, the role of the written language in all of Kievan Rus was performed by the Church Slavonic language, in which the Slavic Bible of Cyril and Methodius was written. Polyansky was the spoken language of the Kyiv principality and became one of the progenitors of the Ukrainian language. During the eventful thousand-year history of Ukraine, German words penetrated into the Ukrainian language in other ways. The penetration of German words into the Ukrainian language continued first through the Polish language during the time of the Polish-Lithuanian state, which included Ukraine for a long time, and later through Galicia, which was part of Austria-Hungary for a long time. From ancient times, German specialists came to Ukraine (builders, carpenters, blacksmiths, brewers, bakers, directors, management personnel, etc.). They all brought with them the terms of their professions.
Not all words of the Ukrainian language, cognate with German, got into the Ukrainian language directly from the German language. Words common to these languages may have other origins. Separate German words entered Ukraine through Yiddish, the language of Eastern European Ashkinazi Jews. for example, the word gwalt (scream, noise), Gewalt, which in German means power, violence.
The presence in the Ukrainian language of many words common to Ukrainian and German is also explained by the borrowing by these languages of international words from Latin, Greek, French, English and other languages. There are many similar international words of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, English and French origin in Ukrainian and German. For example, the words kreyda (Kreide, chalk), education (Edukation, education), fainy (fein, beautiful). Some Ukrainian words in this glossary are not related to German words, but only accidentally similar, consonant with them.
It makes sense to indicate in one glossary all words common to Ukrainian and German, regardless of their origin. Knowledge of such words helps in learning the German language.
When pronouncing the Ukrainian sound "g", it should be borne in mind that in most cases it is pronounced as a voiced sound, paired with a voiceless sound "x", and in Russian - as a voiced sound, paired with a voiced sound "k". Therefore, Ukrainian words with the letter “g” are closer in sound to German words with the letter “h” (gartuvati - haerten - to temper).
In the glossary, first the Ukrainian word is given, then after the dash the German word, then the definite article showing the grammatical gender of the noun (in German), then in parentheses the meaning of this word in German, if this meaning does not completely coincide with the meaning of the Ukrainian word, then after dash - the Russian meaning of the Ukrainian word.
In this publication, special German letters ("sharp" es, vowels with "umlaut") cannot be conveyed. They are transmitted by combinations of Latin letters -ss, -ue, -ae, -oe.
Accentuate - akzentuiren - emphasize, highlight, put an accent
gazebo - Altan, der, Balkon mit Unterbau (in it from it. alt - high) - gazebo, gazebo. At first, large balconies were called that, then - platforms, ledges and gazebos from which you can admire the surrounding landscape.
Bavovna - Baumwolle, die - cotton
bugnet - Bajonett, das - bayonet
bastard - Bastard, der, (in German from French) - bastard, illegitimate child
blakitny - blau - blue, sky-colored
badge - Blech, das - tin
blashany (blashany dah) - blechern (blechernes Dach) - tin (tin roof)
borg - Borg, der - debt, loan
brakuvati (chogos) - brauchen - need (something), lack (something);
meni marriage (chogos) - es braucht mir (etwas) - I lack (something), I need (something);
change pennies - es braucht mir Geld - I don't have enough money, I need money; I miss the hour - es braucht mir Zeit - I don't have enough time, I don't have time
brovar - Brauer, der - brewer (the name of the district center in the Kyiv region of Brovary comes from the word "brovar")
brewery - Brauerei, die - brewery, brewery
brovarstvo - Brauerei, die - brewing
brutal - brutal - rough
brucht - Bruch, der - scrap, scrap metal
buda, booth - Bude, die - it. shop, stall, gatehouse;
buduvati - Bude, die (German shop, stall, gatehouse) - build
burnus - Burnus, der, -nusse, - Arabic cloak with a hood
bursa - Burse, die - bursa, a medieval school with a hostel
bursak - Burse, der, - student of bursa
Wabiti - Wabe, die (German honeycomb) - attract
vagat - vage (German indefinite, shaky) - to hesitate, not to decide
vagitna (female) - waegen (German to weigh) - pregnant ("gained weight")
wag - Waage, die - scales;
important - Waage, die (German scales) - weighty, important;
vazhiti - Waage, die (German scales), waegen (German to weigh) - to weigh;
varta - Wart, der (German guardian, guard) - guard;
vartovy - Wart, der (German keeper, guardian) - sentry;
vartuvati - warten (German to wait, take care of a child or the sick, perform official duties) - to stand on the clock; guard, protect
vazhiti - waegen - weigh, weigh;
watch - Wache, die, Wachte, die, - security, military guard, naval watch, shift;
vvazhati - waegen (German to dare, dare, take risks) - to have an opinion
vizierunok - (from it. Visier das - visor) - pattern
vovna - Wolle, die - wool
vogky - feucht - wet
Guy - Hain, der - grove, forest, copse, oak forest
haiduk - Haiduck (Heiduck), der (from the Hungarian hajduk - driver) (German Hungarian hired warrior, partisan, Hungarian courtier) - hired warrior, servant, traveling footman
hook - Haken, der - hook, hook, hook
halmo - Halm, der (in it. stalk, straw, straw, maybe the Ukrainians slowed down the cart with a bundle of straw?) - brake
halmuvati - Halm, der (in it. stalk, straw, straw, maybe the Ukrainians slowed down the cart with a bunch of straw?) - slow down
garth - Haertung, die - hardening, hardening
gas - Gas, das (German gas) - kerosene
gatunok - Gattung, die - grade, type, variety, quality
gartuvati - haerten - to harden (in the village of Bobrik, Brovarsky district, Kyiv region, a dialect word was used, derived from gartuvati - gartanachka, which meant potatoes baked in a pot on a fire)
hubbub - Gewalt, die (German violence, power) - a loud cry
gvaltuvati - Gewalt, die (German violence, power), jemandem Gewalt antun (German to rape) - to rape
gendlyuvati - handeln - to trade (in Ukrainian it is more often used in an ironic, condemning sense)
hetman (the word hetman came to the Ukrainian language through the Polish language) - Hauptmann, der (German captain, centurion, chief) - hetman
gesheft - Gescheft, das (German business, occupation, business, shop) - trading
gop! (exclamation) - Hops, der, hops!, hopsassa! (in it. - jump, jump) - gop!
hopak - Hops, der, hops!, hopsassa! (German jump, jump) - hopak, Ukrainian dance
grati (multiplier, plural) - Gitter, das - lattice (prison or window)
soil - Grund, der, (German soil, bottom, land) - soil, foundation, justification
priming - gruendlich - thoroughly,
priming - gruendlich - solid
priming, priming - gruenden (German: to lay the foundation for something, to substantiate) - to substantiate
gukati - gucken, kucken, qucken (German watch) - call someone from a distance, call loudly
gum - Gummi, der - rubber, rubber
gum - Gummi- - rubber, rubber
humor - Humor, der, nur Einz. - humor
gurok, pl. gurki - Gurke, die, - cucumber (dialect heard in the city of Gogolev, Kiev region)
Dah - Dach, das - roof
ladies - Damespiel, der - checkers
drit - Draht, der, Draehte - wire
druk - Druck, der - pressure; printing (books, newspapers, etc.)
drukarnia - Druckerei, die - typography
drukar - Drucker, der - printer
drukuvati - druecken - print
dyakuwati - danken - give thanks
Education (obsolete) - Edukation, die - education, upbringing; from this Latin word comes the Ukrainian adjective "edukovy" - educated, educated. From this adjective arose the distorted common folk ironic "midikovan" (an arrogant person with a claim to education) and the expression: "midikov, only not druk" (with a claim to education, but still not printed)
Zhovnir (obsolete) - Soeldner, der (in it from it. Soldo - a monetary unit, lat. Solidus) - a hired warrior
Zaborguvati - borgen - make debts, borrow
Istota - ist (German is, exists - the third person singular of the present tense of the verb sein - to be) - being (organism)
Chapel - Kapelle, die (chapel also matters in it) - chapel
karafka - Karaffe, die - pot-bellied glass vessel with a stopper, for water or drinks, often faceted, decanter
karbovanets - kerben (in it. make notches, notches but with something) - ruble, i.e. embossed, notched
karbuvati - kerben - notch, mint (money)
kvach - Quatsch, der (nonsense, rubbish, goose) - a piece of rags for spreading grease on a frying pan, in a children's game - the one who is obliged to catch up with other players and transfer the role of kvach with his touch, the name of this game, an exclamation when transferring the role of kwach
ticket - Quittung, die (receipt, receipt for receiving something) - ticket (entrance, travel card)
kailo - Keil, der (German wedge, dowel, dihedral angle) - kailo, a manual mining tool for breaking off brittle rocks, a long steel pointed wedge mounted on a wooden handle
keleh - Kelch, der - goblet, bowl, vessel with a leg
kermach - Kehrer, der - helmsman, helmsman
kermo - Kehre, die, (German turn, meander of the road) - steering wheel
keruvati - kehren (in German it matters to turn) - to manage, lead
dumplings - Knoedel, der (in German Knoedel = Kloss - dumplings without filling, made from many components: eggs, flour, potatoes, bread and milk) - dumplings without filling or stuffed
kilim - Kelim, der - carpet (in German and Ukrainian, this word is of Turkish origin)
kleinodi - Kleinod, das - treasures, jewels (through Polish klejnot - jewel, precious object), regalia, which were military insignia of Ukrainian hetmans
color - Couleur, die (in German this word is of French origin) - color
coma - Komma, das - comma
kohati - kochen (German to boil) - to love
kosht (for your own kosht) - Kost, die (German food, table, food, food) - account (at your own expense)
koshtoris - der Kostenplan (pronounced koshtenplan) - estimate
koshtuvati (skilki koshtuє) - kosten (was kostet?) - cost (how much does it cost?)
kravatka - Krawatte, die - tie
kram - Kram, der - goods
kramar - Kraemer, der - shopkeeper, petty trader, huckster
Kramnitsa - Kram, (German goods) - shop, shop
kreida - Kreide, die - chalk
criminal - kriminell - criminal
crisis - Krise, die - crisis
krumka (bread) - Krume, die (German (bread) crumb, pl. crumbs, arable layer of the earth) - a slice, a cut piece of bread
kushtuvati - kosten - to taste
kshtalt (through Polish from German) - Gestalt, die - sample, appearance, form
Lantuh - Leintuch (German linen) - row, cord (coarse sackcloth or clothing), a large bag of row or ponytail ("ponitok" - peasant homespun half-cloth), sacking for tires for carts, for drying grain bread, etc. In Ukrainian language the word got from German through Polish (lantuch - a rag, a rag).
lanzug - Langzug (German long pull, long line) - rope
lizhko - liegen (German to lie) - bed
likhtar - from him. Licht, das light, fire; - flashlight
deprive, deprive - from him. lassen (in it. - this verb has the meaning "leave" and many other meanings) - leave, leave
loh - from him. Loch, das (German hole, hole, hole, pocket, ice hole, peephole, hole) - cellar
lusterko - from him. L;st, die (German joy, pleasure) - mirror
Lyada - from him. Lade, die (German chest, drawer) - a movable lid, a door that closes a hole inside something, a chest lid
Malyuvati - malen - draw
little ones - malen (draw) - drawing
painter - Maler, der - painter, artist
manirny - manierlich (German courteous, polite, well-mannered) - emphatically courteous, cutesy
matir - Mutter, die - mother
molasses - Melasse, die - molasses (sweet thick brown syrup, which is a waste when sugar is obtained)
blizzard - Schmetterling, der - butterfly (insect), moth
morgue - Grossen Magdeburger Morgen; 0.510644 Hektar - unit of land area; 0.5 ha (Western Ukrainian dialect)
mur - Mauer, die - stone (brick) wall
musiti - muessen - to be obliged, to owe
Nіsenіtnitsya - Sensus, der, Sinn, der (German "Sensus", "Sinn" - meaning; Ukrainian "sens" - meaning - come from Latin "sensus") - nonsense, absurdity, absurdity, absurdity, nonsense
nirka - Niere, die - kidney (human or animal organ)
Oliya - Oel, das (German liquid vegetable or mineral oil, oil) - liquid vegetable oil
ocet (in Ukrainian from Latin acetum) - Azetat, das (German acetate, salt of acetic acid) - vinegar
Pava - Pfau, der - peacock
palace - Palast, der - palace
papier - Papier, das - paper
pasuvati - passsen - to approach something (to a person, etc.), to be at the right time
penzel - Pinsel, der - brush (for drawing or painting)
perlin (pearl) - Perle, die - pearl, pearl
peruca - Peruecke, die - wig
perucarnia - Peruecke, die (German wig) - hairdresser
pilaf - Pilaw (read pilaf), (in it options: Pilaf, Pilau), der - pilaf, an oriental dish of lamb or game with rice
pinzel - Pinsel, der - brush (for drawing)
plativka - Platte, die - plate, record
parade ground - Platz, der - area (in the village)
plundruvati - pluendern - plunder, plunder, devastate
dance - Flasche, die - bottle
porcelain - Porzellan, das - porcelain
sloppy - happen (nach D), haeppchenweise - hastily, grab (something with your teeth, mouth, eat hastily, swallow food in pieces)
proposition - poponieren (offer) - offer
to pronounce - poponieren - to offer
Rada - Rat, der - council (instruction or collegiate body); cognate Ukrainian words: radnik - adviser; narada - meeting
walkie-talkie (in Wislov: ty maesh walkie-talkie) - Ratio, die (German reason, logical thinking) - correctness (in expression: you are right)
rahuvati - rechnen - count (money, etc.)
rahunok - Rechnung, die - count, count
reshta - Rest, der - remainder
risik - Risiko, das - risk
robotar - Roboter, der - robot
rinva - Rinne, die - gutter, groove
ryatuvati - retten - to save
Celery - Sellerie, der oder die - celery
sense - Sensus, der, Sinn, der - meaning (in German and Ukrainian, this word came from Latin)
scurvy - Skorbut, der - scurvy
relish - Geschmack, der - taste
relish - schmecken - to taste
savory - schmackhaft - delicious, tasty
list - Spiess, der - spear
rates - Stau, Stausee, der - pond
statute - Statut, das - charter
strike - Streik, der - strike, strike (from English)
strіha - Stroh, das (straw); Strohdach, das (thatched roof) - thatched roof
strum - Strom, der - electric current
strumok - Strom, der (German river, stream) - stream
stringy - Strunk, der (German rod, stem) - slender
stribati - streben (German to strive) - to jump
banner - goes back to Old Norse. stoeng (Old Swedish - stang) "pole, pole" - flag, banner
Teslyar - Tischler, der - carpenter
torturi (in Ukrainian it is used only in the plural) - Tortur, die - torture
tremtiiti - Trema, das (German trembling, fear) - to tremble
Ugryshchyna - Ungarn, das - Hungary
Fine (western Ukrainian dialect) - fein (German thin, small, graceful, noble, rich, good, excellent, weak, quiet, beautiful) - beautiful (in Western Ukrainian dialect this word came from English)
fach - Fach, das - specialty
fahivets - Fachmann, der - specialist
jointer - Fugebank, die, pl. Fugeb;nk - jointer
wagon - Fuhre, die - wagon
furman - Fuhrmann, der - carrier
Hapati - happen (nach D) (in it. - grab something with your teeth, mouth, eat hastily, swallow food in pieces) - grab
hut - Huette, die - house
Tsvirinkati - zwitschen - twitter, chirp
flowers - Zwecke, die (in it. a short nail with a wide hat, a button) - a nail
cegla - Ziegel, der - brick
chainshop - Ziegelei, die - brick factory
ceber - Zuber, der - tub, tub with ears
tsil - Ziel, das - goal
tsibula - Zwiebel, die - onion (plant)
civilian - zivil - civilian, civilian
qina (obsolete) - Zinn, das - tin
tsitska (roughly) - Zitze, die - female breasts
tsukor - Zucker, der - sugar
Succession - Herde, die - herd, herd, herd, flock
Checks - Schachspiel, das - chess
shahrai - Schacherei, die (German petty trade, business dealing, haggling) - swindler
Šibenik - schieben schieben (German to move, push) - hangman, hooligan
shibenitsa - schieben (German to move, push) - gallows
bug - Scheibe, Fensterscheibe, die - window glass
ham - Schincken, der oder die - ham, piece of ham
shinkar - Schenk, der - innkeeper
tavern - Schenke, der - tavern, tavern
way - from the German schlagen - beat, tamp - road, way
shop (Western Ukrainian dialect), - Schuppen, der - fenced off part of the yard or barn, most often with walls made of boards (especially for storing carts and other equipment)
shukhlyada - Schublade, die - drawer
Shcherbatiy - Scherbe, die, (in it. shard, fragment) - with one fallen out, knocked out or broken tooth (this word is also in Russian)
Fair - Jahrmarkt, der, (in it. annual market) - fair (this word is also in Russian)
Glossary of Ukrainian words similar to German
Russian words in German
Oleg Kiselev
RUSSIAN WORDS IN GERMAN
Kiselev O.M. 2007
Every language has words of foreign origin. In German, words of Russian origin mainly refer to the specifics of Russian or Soviet life.
Abkuerzungsverzeichnis - list of abbreviations
Adj. - Adjektiv - adjective
Ez. - Einzahl - singular
frz. - francoesisch - French
it. - italienisch - Italian
lat. - lateinisch - latin
mz. - Mehrzahl - plural
nlat. - neulateinisch - New Latin
russ. - russisch - Russian
slaw. - slawish - Slavic
tschech. - tschechisch - Czech
umg. - umgangssprachlich - from the spoken language
see - sieh! - Look!
This glossary contains words of Russian origin, most of which the average German understands without translation or explanation. Some of these words are understood only by advanced Germans. In German texts, such words are used without translation.
After the noun being explained, the gender of the noun and the endings of the genitive case (genitive) of the singular, as well as the nominative case (nominative) of the plural are indicated in brackets. An explanation of the meaning of these words is given in German and in Russian.
Aktiv, (das, -s, nur Ez.), - Personenegruppe, die eine Aufgabe in der Gesellschaft erfuellt (in Kommunist. Lagern) (lat.-russ.) - asset, (in communist countries)
Aktivist, (der, -n, -n), - 1. jemand, der aktiv und zielstrebig ist, 2. ausgezeichneter Werktaetiger (in der DDR) (lat.-russ.) - activist, active worker (in the GDR)
Apparatschik, (der, -n, -n), sturer Funktion;r (lat.-russ.) - apparatchik, stubborn (stupid, limited) functionary
Babuschka, Matr(j)oschka, traditionalle russische Puppe - in German it is often used instead of the word matryoshka
Balalajka, (die, -, -ken), russischem Zupfinstrument - balalaika, Russian plucked musical instrument
Barsoi, (der, -s, -s), russischer Windhund - greyhound, Russian hound dog
Borschtsch, (der, -s, nur Ez.), Eintopf aus Roten Rueben, Weisskraut, sauer Sahne u.a. (als polnische, ukrainische oder russische Spezialitaet) - borsch, Polish, Ukrainian or Russian first course of beets and / or cabbage with sour cream
Beluga, (der, -s, -s), 1. kleine Walart, Weiswal, 2. (nur Ez.) Hausenkaviar, 3. Hausen (Huso huso L.) - 1. white whale, beluga whale, marine mammal of the dolphin family, 2. beluga caviar, 3. beluga, a genus of fish of the sturgeon family, migratory fish of the Black, Azov, Caspian and Adriatic seas
Bistro, (das, -s, -s), kleine Gaststaedte mit einer Weinbar (russ.-frz.) - bistro, small cafe with a wine bar, snack bar, small restaurant (derived from the Russian word for "fast"; after the victory over Napoleon in 1814 Russian Cossacks in Paris used this word)
Blini, (das, -s, -s), kleiner Buchweizenpfannkuchen - pancakes (in Germany they believe that pancakes are made from buckwheat flour)
Bojar, (der, -n, -n), altruss. Adliger, altrumaenischer Adliger - boyar (in ancient Rus' or in former Romania)
Bolschewik, (der, -n, -n oder -i), Mitglied der Kommunistischen Partei der ehemaliges Sovjetunion (bis 1952) - Bolshevik, member of the Communist Party of the former USSR (until 1952)
bolschewisieren, (Verb), bolschewistisch machen - to Bolshevize
Bolschewismus, (der, -, nur Ez.), Herrschaft der Bolschewiken, (nlat.-russ.) - Bolshevism, Bolshevik domination
Bolschewist, (der, -en, -en), Anhoenger des Bolschewismus - Bolshevik
bolschewistisch, (Adj.), zum Bolschewismus gehoerig - Bolshevik
Burlak, (der, -en, -en), Wolgakahntreidler, Schiffsziher - burlak, a person from a group of people pulling a barge
cyrillische Schrift - see kyrillische Schrift
Datscha, (die, -, -n), Landhaus (in ehemalige DDR) - cottage, country house (formerly - in the former GDR)
Dawaj-dawaj! - come on, come on! (in Germany they know this Russian expression, but they do not understand its literal meaning; the expression was brought by prisoners of war who returned from Russia)
Desjatine, (die, -, -n), altes russisches Flaechenma; (etwas mehr als als ein Hektar) - tithe, an old Russian measure of area, slightly more than one hectare
Getman, (der, -s, -e), (dt.-poln.-ukr.), oberster ukrainische Kosakenfuehrer, (from German Hauptmann - captain, centurion, chief) - hetman (Ukrainian), hetman (Russian) ) (the word hetman came into the Ukrainian language through the Polish language
Glasnost
Gley (der, -, nur Ez.), nasser Mineralboden - soil profile of green, blue or bluish-rusty color due to the presence of ferrous iron (in Russian from English)
Gospodin, (der, -s, Gospoda), Herr - master
Gulag, (der, -s, nur Ez.), Hauptverwaltung der Lagern (in der ehemaliges Sovjetunion) - Gulag, headquarters of camps in the former USSR
Iglu, (der oder das, -s, -s), aus Sneebloken bestehende runde Hutte des Eskimos - an igloo consisting of snow blocks round structure of the Eskimos
Iwan, (der, -s, -s), Russe, sowietischer Soldat; Gesamtheit der sowjetischen Soldaten (als Spitzname im II Weltkrieg) - Ivan, Russian, Soviet soldier, Soviet army (as a nickname during World War II)
Jakute, (der, -en, -en), Angehoeriger eines Turkvolkes in Sibirien - nationality, a person belonging to one of the Turkic peoples of Siberia
Jurte, (die, -, -n), rundes Filzzelt mittelasiatischer Nomaden - yurt, round tent of Central Asian nomads
Kadet, (der, -en, -en), Angehoeriger einer 1905 gegruendeten, liberal-monarchistischen russischen Partei, - cadet, member of the party of constitutional democrats created in 1905, supporters of the constitutional monarchy in tsarist Russia
Kalaschnikow (der, -s, -s), Maschinenpistole (im Namen des russische Erfinder), - Kalashnikovs; Kalashnikov assault rifle (on behalf of the Russian inventor)
Kalmuecke (Kalmyke), (der. -en, -en), Angehoeriger eines Westmongolischenvolkes - Kalmyk
Kasache, (der, -en, -en), Einwohner von Kasachstan, Angehoeriger eines Turkvolkes in Centralasien - Kazakh
Kasack, (der, -s, -s), ueber Rock oder Hose getragene, mit Guertel gehaltene Bluse (durch it.-frz.) - a blouse worn over a dress or trousers and supported by a belt
Kasatschok, (der. -s, -s), akrobatischer Kosakentanz, bei dem die Beine aus der Hoke nach vorn geschleuden werden - an acrobatic dance of the Cossacks, in which the legs slide forward
Kascha, (die, -, nur Ez.), russische Buchweizengruetze, Brei - porridge, in Germany the word "Kascha" is used mainly to refer to buckwheat porridge
KGB - KGB, State Security Committee
Kibitka, (die, -, -s), 1. Jurte, 2. einfacher, ueberdachter russischer Bretterwagen oder Schlitten - 1. yurt, 2. kibitka, a simple covered Russian cart or sleigh
Knute, (die, -, -n), Riemenpeitsche; Gewaltherrschaft - whip, belt whip, control by force
Kolchos (der, das, -, Kolchose), Kolchose (die, -, -n), landwirtschaftliczhe Productionsgenossenschaft in Sozialismus - collective farm, collective farm, agricultural production cooperative under socialism
Komsomol (der, -, nur Ez.), kommunistiscze jugedorganisation (in der ehemaliges UdSSR) (Kurzwort) - Komsomol
Komsomolze (der, -n, -n), Mitglied des Komsomol - member of the Komsomol
Kopeke, (die, -, -n), abbr. Kop. - penny
Kosak, (der, -en, -en), - freier Krieger, leichter Reiter; in Russland und in die Ukraine angesiedelten Bevoelkerungsgruppe - Cossack
Kreml, (der, -s, -s), Stadtburg in russischen Staedten; Stadtburg in Moskau und Sitz der russische Regierung; die russische Regierung - kremlin, central fortress in ancient russian cities, kremlin, central fortress in moscow, soviet or russian government
Kulak, (der, -en, -en), Grossbauer, (von russisches Wort Kulak, bedeutet auch Faust) - prosperous peasant, fist
Kyrillika, Kyrilliza, kyrillische Schrift - slawische Schrift (slaw.) - Cyrillic, Church Slavonic font, the name of a group of Slavic fonts (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Bulgarian, Serbian and Slavonic) derived from the Church Slavonic font created by Cyril and Methodius
Leninismus, (der, -s, nur Ez.), der von W.I.Lenin weiterentwickelte Marksismus (rus.-nlat.) - Leninism
Leninist, (der, -en, -en), Anh;nger des Leninismus (rus.-nlat.) - supporter of Leninism, Leninist
leninistisch, (Adj.), zum Leninismus gehoerig, darauf beruhend (rus.-nlat.) - related to Leninism, based on Leninism
Machorka (der, -s, nur Ez.), russischer Tabak, - shag, Russian strong tobacco
Malossol, (der, -s, nur Ez.), schwach gesalzener russische Kaviar - salted caviar
Matr(j)oschka, traditionalle russische Puppe - matryoshka
Molotowskokteul - Molotov cocktail; Molotov cocktail (the original name of the Molotov cocktail originated in Finland during the Soviet-Finnish war of 1940)
Panje, (der, -s, -s), russischer Bauer, (scherzhaft, abwertend) - Russian peasant (ironically)
Panjewagen, (der, -s, -), kleine einfache russische Pferdwagen, (scherzhaft, abwertend) - primitive Russian cart (ironically)
Papirossa, (die, -, -rosay), russische Zigarette mit langem, hohlem Mundstueck - cigarette, Russian cigarette with a long, hollow mouthpiece
Perm, (das, -s, nur Ez.), juengste Formation des Paleozoikums (Geologie und Paleontologie) - Permian, early Paleozoic period (in geology and paleontology), from the name of the Russian city of Perm
Perestrojka, (ohne Artikel), (der, -s, nur Ez.), Gorbatschtwsreformen, Umgeschtaltung in SU - perestroika, Gorbachev's reforms in the USSR
Petschaft, (das, -s, -e), zum Siegeln verwendeter Stempel oder Ring mit eingrawiertem Namenszug, Wappen oder; nlichen, (tschech.-rus.) - used to make an impression in soft material (in sealing wax) seal, stamp or ring with an engraved name, coat of arms, etc.
Pirogge, (die, -, -n), mit Fleisch oder Fisch, Reis oder Kraut gefuelte russische Hefepastete - Russian pies stuffed with meat, fish, rice or greens
Pogrom, (das, -es, -e), gewaltige Ausschreitungen gegen rassische, religiose, nationale Gruppen, z. B. gegen Juden - pogroms, violent outrages that are directed against racial, religious or national groups of the population, for example against Jews.
Podsol, (der, -s, nur Ez.), mineralsalzarmer, wenig fruchtbarer Boden, Bleicherde - podzolic soil, poor in mineral salts and infertile soil
Politbuero, (das, -s, -s), kurz fuer Politisches Buero, zentraler leitender Ausschuss einer kommunistischen Partei - politburo, political bureau, central leadership of the communist party
Pope, (der, -en, -en), Geistlicher der russischen und griechisch-orthodoxen Kirche - priest, priest of the Russian or Greek Orthodox Church, priest
Rubel (der, -s, -), russische und ehemalige sowjetische Waehrungseinheit - Russian and former Soviet currency
Samisdat, (der, -s, nur Ez.), selbstgeschribene oder selbstgedrueckte illegale Buecher
Samojede, (der, -en, -en), 1.Angehoeriger eines nordsibirischen Nomadenvolks; 2. eine Schlittenhundrasse - 1. Samoyed, a person belonging to one of the Siberian nomadic tribes; 2. draft dog breed
Samowar, (der, -s, -e), russische Teemaschine - Russian samovar
Sarafan, (der, -s, -e), ausgeschnitenes russische Frauenkleid, das ueber eine Bluse getragen wyrde (pers.-russ.) - Russian women's clothing (the word came to Russian from Persian)
Stalinismus, (der, -s, nur Ez.), 1. totalitaere Dictatur J.Stalins (1879-1953), die 1936-1939 mit der Ermordung von Millionen Menschen gipfelte; 2. Versuch den Socialismus mit Gewaltakten umzusetzen (rus.-nlat.) - Stalinism; 2. attempt to introduce socialism through violence
Stalinorgel, (die, -, -n), sovietischer rohrlose Raketenwerfer ("Katjuscha") - "Katyusha", the name of the Soviet barrelless rocket artillery, which appeared during the war of 1941-1845.
Steppe, (der, -s, -s), weite Grassebene - steppe, wide grassy plain
Sputnik, (der, -s, -s), kuenstlicher Satelit im Weltraum, - satellite, artificial space body revolving around a natural space body
Taiga, (die, -, nur Ez.), Nadelwald-Sumpfguertel (in Sibirien), (tuerk.-russ.) - taiga, natural zone of coniferous forests, coniferous forest (in Siberia), often swampy
TASS (die, nur Ez.), ehem. staatliche Sovetische Pressagentur (russ., Kurzwort) - TASS, Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union
Tatar, (der, -en, -en), Angehoeriger eines t; rkischen Volks in der Sovjetunion (t; rk.-russ.) - Tatar
Troika, (die, -, -s), russische Gespannform, Dreigespann; Dreierbuendnis - a troika, a team of three horses, a team of three persons, a judicial panel that condemned the so-called. enemies of the people (in the former USSR)
Trotzkismus, (der, -, nur Ez.), ultralinke Kommunistische Stroemung - Trotskyism, ultra-left communist political movement
Trozkist, (der, -en, -en), anh;nger des Trotzkismus - Trotskyist, supporter of Trotskyism
Tscheka, (die, -, nur Ez.), politische Politei der Sowjetunion (bis 1922) - Cheka, Cheka, political police at the beginning of Soviet power (until 1922)
Tscherwonez, (der, -, plural Tscherwonzen), altrussische Goldm;nze, 10-Rubelstuck (frueher) - chervonets, gold ten-ruble pre-revolutionary Russian coin
Tundra, (die, -, Tundren), Kaeltesteppe (finn.-russ.) - tundra
Ukas, der, Ukasses, plural Ukasse, Zarenerlass, Anordnung (scherzhaft) - decree, command of the king or supreme authority
Werst, (die, -, -), altes russisches Laengenmass (etwas mehr als Kilometer) - an old Russian measure of area, a little more than one kilometer
Wodka, (der, -s, -s), russischer oder polnischer Getreideschnaps oder Kartoffelschnaps (manchmal mit Zusaetzen, z.B. Bueffelgrasswodka) - vodka, Russian (Wodka) or Polish (Vodka) a strong alcoholic drink made from grain or potatoes, sometimes infused with herbs (e.g. bison)
Zar, (der, -en, -en), Herschertitel (frueher, in Russland, Bulgarien, Serbien, Momtenegro) (lat.-got.-russ.) - king
Zarewitsch, (der, -es, -e), russischer Zarenson, Prinz - prince, son of the Russian Tsar
Zarewna, (die, -, -s), Zarentochter - princess, daughter of the king
zaristisch, (Adj.), zur Zarenherschaft geh; rig, zarentreu, monarchistisch - royal, related to tsarism, loyal to the king
Zariza, (die, -, -s oder Zarizen), Zarengemahlin oder regirende Herscherin - queen, king's wife or reigning monarch
Kiselev O.M. 2007
M. A. ZHELUDENKO
(National Aviation University)
FEATURES OF GERMAN BORROWINGS IN THE UKRAINIAN LANGUAGE
Zheludenko of German borrowings in the Ukrainian language. The article is devoted to German borrowings in the Ukrainian language. The methods of penetration of Germanisms into the Ukrainian language are analyzed; the main areas in which Germanisms appeared in a particular historical period are singled out; different chronological periodizations are considered, which characterize the appearance of German borrowings in the Ukrainian language.
Key words: borrowing, Germanism, vocabulary, influence, language contact, classification.
Zheludenkoand German translations in Ukrainian language. The article is dedicated to German references in Ukrainian language. The ways of penetration of germanisms into the Ukrainian language are analyzed; the main spheres appear, in which there were germanisms in a specific historical period; different chronological periods are considered, which characterize the appearance of the Germans in the Ukrainian language.
Key words: postposition, germanism, vocabulary, vply, current contact, classification.
Zheludenko M.A. Peculiarites of German loanwords in the Ukrainian language. The article deals with German loanwords in the Ukrainian language. The author analyses penetration of Germanisms into the Ukrainian language. Much attention is paid to the appearance of Germanisms in particular historical periods. Different chronological periods of German loanwords penetration into the Ukrainian language are examined.
Key words: loanwords, Germanism, lexical, influence, language contact, classification.
The processes taking place in the modern world are leading to globalization at different levels - from economics and politics to linguistics. Borrowings from one language to another are the norm and part of the process of globalization itself. Often borrowings arise as a result of innovation in any branch of science or technology and are transformed into internationalisms. Borrowings are partly a reflection of the desire for scientific progress and civilization, since on their basis the language of international terminology is created.
The study of interlingual contacts is devoted to the works of I. Sharovolsky, J. Grott, L. Krysin, D. Lotte, M. Makovsky and others, which reveal the interaction of literary languages, the history of contacting languages, as well as the material and spiritual culture of their speakers.
Doroshenko, A. Dulichenko, G. Zelenina, E. Makeeva, Yu. Tereshchenko, V. Yanev, L. Rudnitsky, I. Mirchuk show the German-Ukrainian relations in the European context, as well as the interaction of the German language with other languages.
The study of language contacts, the influence of one language on another, borrowing vocabulary from different languages is one of the tasks of modern linguistics, which leads to relevance this problem. aim This article is an analysis of borrowings from the German language in the Ukrainian language, the causes and ways of their penetration, as well as the chronological classification of semantic groups of borrowings. Subject studies are lexical borrowings from the German language and their analogues in Ukrainian languages.
Borrowings are words of foreign origin that go through certain phonetic and morphological changes. Borrowed words enter the language orally or in writing, often through the medium of other languages. German borrowings fell into the Slavic languages in general, and in particular the Ukrainian language directly from German, or through other languages - Hungarian, Polish, Czech, Latin, French, Italian. The Germans, who were in contact with the Slavic tribes already at the time of the Proto-Slavic language, influenced the Slavic languages for a long period [Lote 1982; Martynov 1963; Tishchenko 2000].
Researchers of lexical Germanisms A. Aboni, L. Koshkareva identify such factors that influenced the penetration of German borrowings into the Ukrainian language: 1) Polish and Czech, 2) Ukrainian-German business contacts, 3) ethno-cultural Ukrainian-German ties; 4) historical belonging of the territories of Western Ukraine to the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy [Drobakha 2010; Aboni; Kis 2005; Koshkareva 2010].
Scientists also distinguish the stages that all words go through, getting from the source language to the borrower:
Penetration,
Adaptation or entry into the language,
assimilation,
Rooting [Manakin 2008, p. 6-7; Tishchenko 2000, p. 134; Tokareva 2002, pp. 45-50].
It is possible to consider the process of penetration of vocabulary from one language into another only in the context of the historical, political, economic development of the people. The continuity of this process determines the relevance of this problem for both theoretical and practical study.
L. Koshkareva emphasizes the role of the Czech and Polish languages in the second half of the 16th century as intermediaries in the process of penetration of Germanisms into the Ukrainian language. Through the Polish language in the XVI - early XVII centuries. fall:
Terms of typography - druk, stamp, font;
Trading vocabulary - shink, borg, reshta;
Technical terms - drіt, valve, axle box, seal;
Construction and architectural vocabulary - dakh, bruk, beam, moulard, kahli, cement, cornice[Koshkareva 2010, p. 249-251] .
explores Germanisms in the Ukrainian-Hungarian dictionary. At the same time, he examines in detail the ways in which German words entered the Ukrainian language through other languages. In this case, of particular interest to us are the borrowings that came into Ukrainian through the Polish and Czech languages. Let's look at some examples:
varta(XVI century) (Polish), gesheft(Slovak) waiter(Polish), melduvati(Polish), apron(XVIII century) (Polish), fireworks ( 18th century) (Slovak), spay(East Slovak), etc.
The authors of chronological-semantic classifications - L. Koshkareva, A. Aboni - characterize in detail each stage of Ukrainian-German relations and establish a periodization that covers the period from the 10th century to our time. L. Koshkareva identifies such chronological stages of German-Ukrainian contacts: XI-XIV centuries, XIV-XVII centuries, XVIII-XIX centuries, XX centuries - to the present day. In the article "Historical Interaction between German and Ukrainian Languages" she characterizes in detail each of the periods in the context of Ukrainian-German relations and gives examples of borrowings that appear during these periods [Koshkareva 2010].
A. Aboni also highlights the areas in which, in his opinion, the most common words of German origin. These areas are:
Construction - verstat, trowel, jack, paste, valve, kram, coupling, jointer, sheet pile, hose, plasterer;
Art - harp, choreographer, tuning fork, bandmaster, leitmotif, dance;
Literature
About Lexical Germanisms in the Ukrainian-Hungarian Dictionary of Istvan Udvari / A. Aboni // http://www. nyf. hu/others/docs/orosz_elekt_konyv/abonyi_andrea. pdf
Semantic variation of German, English and French translations in Ukrainian language // Science Bulletin of the Volinsky National University named after Lesya Ukrainka. - No. 7. - 2010. - S. 234-239.
Kis R. Globally - nationally - locally (social anthropology of cultural space) / R. Kis. – Lviv.: Litopis, 2005. – 300 p.
Historical interrelationship between the German and Ukrainian languages / // Scientific Bulletin of the Volinsky National University named after Lesya Ukrainka. - No. 7. - 2010. - S. 249-252.
Issues of borrowing and ordering foreign terms and term elements / - M .: Nauka, 1982. - 147 p.
Manakin V. Move the world and global symmetry of the universe / V. Manakin // Nauk. notes. - Vip. 75(1). – Ser.: philol. sciences (movoznavstvo). - Kirovograd: RVV KDPU im. V. Vinnichenko, 2008. - S. 3−9.
Slavic-Germanic lexical interaction of the most ancient times / . - Minsk: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the BSSR, 1963. - 250 p.
Metatheory of cognition / . - K .: Foundations, 2000. - 278 p.
Adaptation of German lexical borrowings in the Russian literary language: based on sources from the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. / / Dis. … cand. philol. Sciences: 10.02.01. - Tyumen, 2002. - 175 p.
Terminological variation in the process of borrowing in intercultural communication / // http://www. hse. en/data/
Sources of illustrative material
СІС– Glossary of inshomonic words. - K .: Nauk. Dumka, 2000. - 680 p.
CCIS– Modern glossary of inshomonic words. - Kharkov: Vesta, Ranok, 2008. - 688 p.
When pronouncing the Ukrainian sound "g", it should be borne in mind that in most cases it is pronounced as a voiced sound, paired with a voiceless sound "x", and in Russian - as a voiced sound, paired with a voiced sound "k". Therefore, Ukrainian words with the letter “g” are closer in sound to the German words with the letter “h” (hartuvati - haerten - to temper).
Here, the Ukrainian word is given first, then, after the dash, the German word, then the definite article, showing the grammatical gender of the noun (in German), then the meaning of this word in German in brackets, if this meaning does not completely coincide with the meaning of the Ukrainian word, then after the dash - the Russian meaning of the Ukrainian word.
In this publication, special German letters (“sharp” es, vowels with “umlaut”) cannot be conveyed. They are transmitted by combinations of Latin letters -ss, -ue, -ae, -oe.
Of course, none of all existing human languages on our planet is something ossified (conserved), created once and for all, invented by the people (tribe). People of one locality communicate with people of another, as a result of which the languages of each of them are enriched with new concepts and words. There are also international words - telephone, car, cinema, computer, Internet, etc. However, having looked at the list of Ukrainian words of German origin that is offered to your attention, you have the opportunity to make sure that many of them are purely everyday (here I use transliteration - the spelling of Ukrainian sounds in Russian letters): [blakytny (blue); defective (not enough); brutal (rough); vagatysya (doubt); vvazhaty (to have an opinion); vizerunok (pattern), etc., etc.], which certainly had to be created by this and only this people. But that didn't happen. Why? Yes, for the simple reason that the Ukrainian language is the same artificial formation as the Ukrainian people itself, which is a population (biomass) consisting of descendants of mestizos, at one time or another produced by men of Arabic (the so-called Jewish ) and women of Russian origin.
In this regard, the Ukrainian people and the Czech people, consisting of the descendants of Arab (Jewish) males and, now, German (Bohemian) females, are like two oars similar to each other. Just like these two Newspeak - Ukrainian and Czech.
bavovna - Baumwolle, die - cotton
bagnet - Bajonett, das - bayonet
bastard - Bastard, der, (in German from French) - bastard, illegitimate child
blakitny - blau - blue, sky-colored
plaque - Blech, das - tin
blashany (blashany dah) - blechern (blechernes Dach) - tin (tin roof)
borg - Borg, der - debt, loan
brakuvati (chogos), - brauchen - need (something), lack (something); I need - me marriage (chogos), I do not have enough, I need es braucht mir (etwas), es braucht mir Geld - me marriage (chogos), I do not have enough, I need (something); es braucht mir Geld - I marry pennies, I do not have enough money, I need money; es braucht mir Zeit - I’m married for an hour, I don’t have enough time, I don’t have time
brovarnya - Brauerei, die - brewery, brewery (the name of the district center in the Kyiv region, Brovary, comes from the word brovarnya)
brutal - brutal - rough
brucht - Bruch, der - scrap, scrap metal
buda, booth - Bude, die - German. shop, stall, gatehouse;
buduvati - Bude, die (German shop, stall, gatehouse) - build
burnus - Burnus, der, -nusse, - Arabic cloak with a hood
bursa - Burse, die - bursa, medieval school with a hostel
bursak - Burse, der, - student of bursa
wag - waegen (German to weigh) - to hesitate, not to decide
wag - Waage, die - scales;
vazhiti - waegen - weigh, weigh;
vvazhati - waegen (German to dare, dare, take risks) - to have an opinion
vizierunok - (from it. Visier das - visor) - pattern
vovna - Wolle, die, - wool
guy - Hain, der - grove, forest, copse, oak forest
haiduk - Haiduck (Heiduck), der (from the Hungarian hajduk - driver) (German Hungarian hired warrior, partisan, Hungarian courtier) - hired warrior, servant, traveling footman
hook - Haken, der - hook, hook, hook
gartuvati - haerten - to harden (in the village of Bobryk, Brovarsky district, Kyiv region, a dialect word was used, derived from gartuvati - gartanachka, which meant potatoes baked in a pot on a fire)
hubbub - Gewalt, die (German violence, power) - a loud cry
gvaltuvati - Gewalt, die (German violence, power), jemandem Gewalt antun die (German to rape) - to rape
hetman (the word hetman came to the Ukrainian language through Polish) - Hauptmann, der (German captain, centurion, chief) - hetman
gesheft - Gescheft, das (German business, occupation, business, shop) - trading business
gop! (exclamation) - Hops, der, hops!, hopsassa! (in it. - jump, jump) - gop!
hopak - Hops, der, hops!, hopsassa! (German jump, jump) - hopak, Ukrainian dance
grati (multiple, plural) - Gitter, das - lattice (prison or window)
soil - Grund, der, (German soil, bottom, land) - soil, foundation, justification
priming, priming - gr; nden (German: lay the foundation for something, justify) - justify
grounding - gr; ndlich - thoroughly,
priming - gr; ndlich - solid
gukati - gucken, kucken, qucken (German watch) - call someone at a distance, loudly
dah - Dach, das - roof
ladies - Damespiel, der - checkers
drit - Draht, der, Dr; hte - wire
druk - Druck, der - pressure; printing (books, newspapers, etc.)
drukarnia – Druckerei, die – typography
drukar - Drucker, der - printer
drukuvati - druecken - to print
dyakuwati - danken - give thanks
education (obsolete) - Edukation, die - education, upbringing; from this Latin word comes the Ukrainian adjective "edukovy" - educated, educated. From this adjective arose the distorted common folk ironic "midikovan" (an arrogant person with a claim to education) and the expression: "midikov, only not druk" (with a claim to education, but still not printed)
zaborguvati - borgen - to make debts, to borrow;
chapel - Kapelle, die (chapel also matters in it) - chapel
karafka - Karaffe, die - pot-bellied glass vessel with a stopper, for water or drinks, often faceted, decanter
karbovanets - kerben (in it. make notches, notches but with something) - ruble, that is, minted, with notches
karbuvati - kerben - make a notch, mint (money)
kermo - Kehre, die, (German turn, meander of the road) - steering wheel
kermach - Kehrer, der - helmsman, helmsman
keruvati - kehren (in German it matters to turn) - to manage, lead
kailo - Keil, der (German wedge, dowel, dihedral angle) - kailo, a hand-held mountain tool for breaking off brittle rocks, a long steel pointed wedge mounted on a wooden handle
kelikh, less often kelech - Kelch, der - cup, bowl vessel with a leg
coma - Komma, das - comma
kohati - kochen (German to boil) - to love
kosht (for your own kosht) - Kost, die (German food, table, food, food) - account (at your own expense)
koshtoris - der Kostenplan (pronounced koshtenplan) - estimate
koshtuvati (skilki koshtu?) - kosten (was kostet?) - cost (how much does it cost?)
kravatka - Krawatte, die - tie
kram - Kram, der - goods
kramar - Kraemer, der - shopkeeper, small trader, huckster
Kramnitsa - Kram, (German goods) - shop, shop
kreida - Kreide, die - chalk
criminal - kriminell - criminal
crisis - Krise, die - crisis
krumka (bread) - Krume, die (German (bread) crumb, pl. crumbs, arable layer of the earth) - a cut piece of bread
kushtuvati - kosten - to taste
lantukh - Leintuch (German linen) - row, cord (coarse sackcloth or clothes), a large bag of row or ponytail ("ponitok" - peasant homespun half-cloth), sacking for tires for carts, for drying grain bread, etc. In Ukrainian language, the word got from German through Polish (lantuch - a rag, a flap).
lizhko - liegen (German to lie) - bed
likhtar - from him. Licht, das light, fire; - flashlight
loh - from him. Loch, das hole, hole, hole, pocket, hole, peephole, hole; - cellar
lusterko - from him. Luest, die (German joy, pleasure) - mirror
malyuvati - malen - draw
painter - Maler, der - painter, artist
manirny - manierlich (German courteous, polite, well-mannered) - emphatically courteous, cutesy
matir - Mutter, die - mother
blizzard - Schmetterling, der - butterfly (insect), moth
mur - Mauer, die - stone (brick) wall
musiti - muessen - to be obliged, to owe
nirka - Niere, die - kidney (human or animal organ)
oliya - Oel, das (German liquid vegetable or mineral oil, oil) - liquid vegetable oil
pava - Pfau, der - peacock
palace - Palast, der - palace
papier - Papier, das - paper
pasuvati - passsen - to approach something (to a person, etc.), to be fit
penzel - Pinsel, der - brush (for drawing or painting)
perlin (pearl) - Perle, die - pearl, pearl
peruca - Peruecke, die - wig
perukarnya - Peruecke, die (German wig) - hairdresser
pilaf, pilaf - Pilaw (read pilaf), (in it options: Pilaf, Pilau), der - pilaf, an oriental dish of lamb or game with rice
scarf - Platte, die - plate, plate
parade ground - Platz, der - area (in the village)
plundruvati - pluendern - plunder, plunder, devastate
dance - Flasche, die - bottle
porcelain - Porzellan, das - porcelain
sloppy - happen (nach D), haeppchenweise - hastily, grab (something with your teeth, mouth, eat hastily, swallow food in pieces)
walkie-talkie (in Wislovi: ty maesh walkie-talkie) - Ratio, die (German reason, logical thinking) - rightness (in expression: you are right)
rahunok - Rechnung, die - count, count
reshta - Rest, der - remainder
selera - Sellerie, der oder die - celery
scurvy - Skorbut, der - scurvy
relish - Geschmack, der - taste
savory - schmackhaft - tasty, tasty
list - Spiess, der - spear
rates - Stau, Stausee, der - pond
statute - Statut, das - charter
strike - Streik, der - strike, strike (from English)
strum - Strom, der - electric current
strumok - Strom, der (German river, stream) - stream
stribati - streben (German to strive) - to jump
banner - goes back to Old Norse. stoeng (Old Swedish - stang) "pole, pole" - flag, banner
teslyar - Tischler, der - carpenter
torturi (in Ukrainian it is used only in the plural) - Tortur, die - torture
shake - Trema, das (German trembling, fear) - trembling
fine (western Ukrainian dialect), garniy - fein (German thin, small, graceful, noble, rich, good, excellent, weak, quiet, beautiful) - beautiful (in Western Ukrainian dialect this word came from English )
fah - Fach, das - specialty
fahivets - Fachmann, der - specialist
wagon - Fuhre, die - cart
furman - Fuhrmann, der - carrier
hapati - happen (nach D) - grab (including something with teeth, mouth), eat hastily, swallow food in pieces
tsvirinkati - zwitschen - twitter, tweet
cegla - Ziegel, der - brick
chainshop - Ziegelei, die - brick factory
ceber - Zuber, der - tub, tub with ears
tsil - Ziel, das - goal
cibula - Zwiebel, die - onion (plant)
civilian - zivil - civilian, civil
qina (obsolete) - Zinn, das - tin
tsitska (roughly) - Zitze, die - female breasts
tsukor - Zucker, der - sugar
checks - Schachspiel, das - chess
Šibenik - schieben schieben (German to move, push) - hangman, hooligan
shibenitsa - schieben (German to move, push) - gallows
error - Scheibe, Fensterscheibe, die - window glass
ham - Schincken, der oder die - ham, piece of ham
shinkar - Schenk, der - innkeeper
tavern - Schenke, der - tavern, tavern
way - from the German schlagen - beat, tamp - road, path
shop (Western Ukrainian dialect), - Schuppen, der - fenced off part of the yard or barn, most often with walls made of boards (especially for storing carts and other equipment)
shukhlyada - Schublade, die - drawer
fair - Jahrmarkt, der, (in it. annual market) - fair (this word is also in Russian, but it came to Russian from Ukrainian)