Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation
Moscow Pedagogical State University
Faculty of Philology
on methodology of psychological research
topic: “Sociometry as a method of psychological research”
Completed by: student of group 206
Anokhina Anna
Introduction
Chapter 1. History of the method
Chapter 2. Sociometry as a method of psychological research
Chapter 3. Processing sociometry results
3.1 Sociomatrix
3.2 Sociogram
3.3 Sociometric indices
Conclusion
Introduction
Personality, collective, society are fundamental concepts that characterize the development of humanity. All these concepts are inextricably linked and inseparable from each other, so they can only be considered in conjunction. After all, what constitutes and defines society? Relationships between individuals within it. Individuals make up a collective, shape it - this is a characteristic of life, because any person considers himself to be a certain group of people, a team: family, class, colleagues at work. Life without interaction with other people is impossible. Therefore, it is so important and necessary to study the relationships of people within groups, identify the leader, and study the typology of social behavior of people within the group. The social environment consists of various components that play different roles in the social system. These components have different effects on humans. In society, small and large social groups can be distinguished. In a small group, the determining factors are the interaction between its members, emotional contact, and socio-psychological behavior. One of the most effective methods for studying relationships within a small group is the sociometry method. It is used to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations with the aim of improving and changing them. The results of this study can be used not only as diagnostic, but also for correctional work, changing a person’s position in the system of interpersonal relationships, conflict resolution, etc.
The use of this method in the study of relationships in groups is relevant for modern sociology and social psychology.
Chapter 1. History of the method
The sociometry method appeared in the 30s of the 20th century. This technique was developed by Jacob Moreno, an American psychiatrist and social psychologist. Moreno, from a position close to Gestalt psychology, studied processes within small groups that reflect the informal microstructure of society. According to his theory, the psychological well-being of an individual is determined by its place in the structure of interpersonal relationships. Relationships are determined by the emotional situation, mutual likes and dislikes between group members. To clarify these connections, the sociometry method was developed.
Moreno's understanding of sociometry had a huge impact on the emergence and development of social theory and practical social theories. Moreno is considered a representative of neo-Freudianism. He turns to the study of psychological relationships between people in small groups. The foundations of sociometric theory were laid in 1908-2925. The book “Who Will Survive?” became a systematic presentation of sociometry. J. Moreno had a huge influence on the development of sociology; ideas and methods have become widespread and are used in many countries around the world. Sociometry influenced other branches of sociology: psychiatry, anthropology, etc. Moreno called this influence the “sociometric movement.”
Moreno also wrote the book “Fundamentals of Sociometry”, the first part of which was called “The Sociometric System”. Moreno views the sociometric system as part of a larger system. “The superior principle,” writes Moreno, “is socionomy with its three branches: sociodynamics, sociometry and sociatry,” interconnected. Socionomy is the science of social laws, sociodynamics is the science of social groups. Sociometry is the science of measuring interpersonal relationships.
Sociometry, according to Moreno, is “the sociology of microdynamic processes.” Thanks to its development, it became necessary to divide the social sciences into macroscopic and microscopic. The sociometric system contains three elements: socius, measurement and drama. From this we can derive three directions in research: group research, measurement research, action research.
There are three main stages in the development of the sociometric approach: emergence and approval (by 1934), culmination or “direction of the old sociometry” (mainly the period 1936-1956) and “new sociometry” (1956-1966 and later) .
However, this approach has been repeatedly criticized by other researchers. (Desev L., Yadov V.A.) But, along with this, sociometry has become widespread among psychologists, both domestic and foreign. In Russian psychology, the introduction of sociometry is associated with such names as E.S. Kuzmin, Ya.L. Kolominsky, V.A. Poisons, etc.
Researchers considered sociometry as a method for studying relationships in production groups and in pedagogical systems. For example, E.S. Kuzmin, using sociometry, studied relationships in work groups and the effectiveness of joint activities of group members. He proposed measuring relationships in a group according to several criteria simultaneously (comradeship, production, etc.). Other teachings used sociometry to obtain information about relationships in small groups, to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations. Scientists such as O.V. Kirichuk, M.V. Gamezo and I.A. Domashenko, L.M. Friedman, used sociometry to study relationships within school classes. They applied the results obtained in practical educational work.
But sociometry was studied not only as a method of psychological research, but also as a social theory. The emphasis on this was made by the Bulgarian scientist Lyuben Desev. But his interpretation of the theory was influenced by the Marxist-Leninist ideology, of which he was an adherent. However, it is worth noting that in his works he dwells in detail on the works of the founder of the method, J. Moreno, and also offers an analysis of the literature devoted to the study of relationship problems in small groups. Desev presents us with a comparative assessment of the positive and negative aspects of sociometry.
From all of the above, we can conclude that researchers paid more attention to the practical side of sociometry rather than to such a component as social theory.
Chapter 2. Sociometry as a method of psychological research
The term “sociometry” comes from the Latin societas (society) and metrium –
measure – denotes 1. a branch of social psychology and sociology that studies interpersonal relationships in small groups using quantitative methods with an emphasis on studying likes and dislikes within the group, 2. an applied direction, including the study, improvement and use of appropriate tools for solving practical problems.
The purpose of sociometric research may be the following questions:
measuring the degree of cohesion - exposure;
detection of intragroup subsystems.
Sociometry measures the authority of formal and informal leaders to regroup people in teams so as to reduce tension in the team. The sociometry method does not require a lot of time - no more than 15 minutes, and it allows you to determine the popularity - unpopularity of group members, reveal the informal structure of the group, and evaluate the behavior of people in collective work.
The reliability of the sociometric procedure depends on the correct choice of criteria and assessment of the intragroup climate. The general scheme of sociometric research is as follows. After setting the research objectives, the main hypotheses and provisions regarding possible criteria for surveying group members are formulated. During sociometry there cannot be complete anonymity. Questions are written on a card or asked orally. The subject is required to answer questions based on his own likes - antipathies, trust or distrust.
In the process of sociometry, so-called “sociometric surveys” are used. A sociometric survey differs from a regular survey, because in it, instead of a sign, as in a regular survey, the answer is the surname or the number under which the surname is encrypted. In a regular survey, after processing the material, respondents are distributed according to this characteristic; in a sociometric survey, a structure of relations in the studied set is created. Therefore, when processing sociometric data, methods characteristic of conventional surveys are not used. The results of sociometry and the information obtained during the study are presented in special forms: sociograms and sociomatrix.
The sociometric procedure can be carried out in two versions.
Nonparametric procedure
With a nonparametric procedure, the subject is unlimited in the number of choices and can write down all members of the group on the card. In this case, the number of elections is N – 11, where N is the number of people in the group. Similarly, each group member will be selected N – 1 number of times. The nonparametric procedure allows us to fully assess the emotional expansiveness of each group member and see the diversity of intragroup interpersonal connections. But the use of a nonparametric procedure will be irrational in relation to larger groups, since processing the results will be impossible without the use of computer technology. Also, another disadvantage of the nonparametric procedure is the high probability of random selection, because answers like “I choose everyone” are possible. In this case, we can talk either about an undifferentiated system of relations between the subject and other members of the group, or about a deliberately false answer from the respondent.
Parametric procedure
The parametric procedure is characterized by limiting the number of answers, thereby reducing the possibility of random selection. The subject can choose only a strictly limited number of people. The limitation on the number of elections is called the “sociometric limitation” or “election limit.” The introduction of a sociometric limitation makes it possible to increase the reliability of the study and facilitate the processing of the material. On the other hand, such a limitation forces subjects to take their answers more seriously and carefully, to choose only those people who they really consider suitable for the role proposed in the survey. Limiting the number of selections allows results to be standardized and data obtained across different groups to be compared. But the parametric procedure has its drawbacks: it does not allow revealing all the diversity of relationships in a group, but shows only subjectively significant connections.
Questions can be sociometric or autosociometric. In autosociometric surveys, it is proposed to assess which of the group members will choose a given respondent or to predict how certain group members will answer or how they will choose each other.
The type of question should correspond to the characteristic that is intended to be investigated. It is necessary that the question be specific, that is, when asking “Who would you choose to spend your free time with?” it is necessary to clarify exactly how they will spend their time: going on a camping trip, visiting a cinema, and so on.
Chapter 3. Processing sociometry results
The simplest ways to process sociometry results are tabular, graphical and indexological.
Sociomatrix
The sociomatrix is a table that includes all the positive and negative choices made by all members of the group.
The first stage is the construction of the simplest sociomatrix. The results are distributed throughout the matrix using symbols. The surnames of group members are written vertically under numbers, and only the numbers of group members are written horizontally. In case of a positive choice, the numbers +1, +2, +3 are placed at the corresponding intersections, indicating who would be chosen in the first, second, third place, -1, -2, -3 - those who would not be chosen in the first, second and so on. In the table, mutual choices are circled (regardless of the order of choice). After entering all the selections into the table, the sum of all selections received by each member of the results group is calculated vertically, then the sum of points is calculated: the first stage - +3 (-3) points, the second - +2 (-2) and so on. Based on these results, the person’s status in the group is determined. By analyzing the sociomatrix, one can get an idea of the relationships within the group. To compile a picture of several elections, summary sociomatrices can be constructed, as well as sociomatrices based on data from intergroup elections. The advantage of a sociomatrix: the ability to present elections in numerical form, as well as establish the status of group members and the order of influences.
Sociogram
A sociogram is constructed based on the sociomatrix. A sociogram is a graphic representation of the subjects’ reactions to each other when answering a sociometric criterion. Based on the sociogram, it is possible to analyze the structure of relationships in the group. It gives a clear idea of the differentiation of group members and their popularity. The sociomatrix allows for a deeper qualitative description and visual representation of group phenomena. When analyzing a sociogram, the most influential members, mutual pairs, groupings composed of those trying to choose each other are identified. The most common groups are 2-3 members.
There are several options for a sociogram. The first option: a set of concentric circles with surname numbers placed inside, which are connected by arrows characterizing the elections. The most popular members of the group are located in the inner circle, the next circle contains those who received a number of elections close to the average, and so on. The second option: an arbitrary planar image on which groups of individuals who mutually chose each other are highlighted. The distances between groups characterize the elections between them. Third option: individual sociogram. It consists in the fact that the selected group member is depicted in the system of connections identified during the study.
Typically, within a sociogram, males are depicted using small triangles, females - circles. This form of image makes the sociogram more visual.
Sociometric indices
The objectification of the research results is calculated using sociometric indices. There are personal sociometric indices (PSI) and group sociometric indices (GSI). Personal sociometric indices characterize the individual socio-psychological properties of a person in the role of a group member. These include indices of sociometric status, expansiveness of the individual in the group, volume, intensity and concentration of interaction of the ij-member, where i and j are the same group member, but in different roles: the chooser (j) and the chosen one (i).
The index of sociometric status of the i-member of the group is calculated using the following formula:
B i + + B i -
In this formula, C i is the sociometric status, B + and B - are the elections received, - the sign of the algebraic summation of all received selections, N is the number of received selections.
Sociometric status is the property of a person as an element of a sociometric structure to occupy a certain spatial position (locus) in it, that is, to relate in a certain way to other elements. This property can be measured by a number - an index of sociometric status. There are positive and negative status, depending on how a person influences others. To calculate sociometric status, you should use the results of the sociomatrix.
Index of emotional expansiveness of group member j:
B j + + Bj-
E j – emotional expansiveness, B j – choices made by a group member. The emotional expansiveness index characterizes the individual’s need for communication.
Group sociometric indices: group emotional expansiveness index and psychological reciprocity index.
Turkeys of emotional expansiveness.
+ i j + - i j
where + i j is the total number of positive choices; - i j - total number of negative choices; - number of members in the group. The index allows you to determine the average activity of a group.
Psychological reciprocity index (group cohesion):
where + i j is the number of mutual positive choices; - number of members in the group.
Conclusion
An important factor in the formation of personality and its upbringing is the process of direct social interaction that occurs in a small group. One of the most effective ways to study relationships within a group of people is sociometry, which is a quantitative assessment of interpersonal relationships. To diagnose emotional connections, there is a sociometric test that analyzes mutual likes and dislikes within a group. A sociometric survey allows you to determine the popularity of group members, identify the leader and outcasts, and identify the degree of socio-psychological compatibility of group members.
For the purity of sociometric research, it is necessary to comply with the following rules:
the wording of the question should be clear to all group members;
clearly defined group boundaries;
experience of joint activities;
the criteria must be significant to group members;
the survey is conducted by a person outside the group;
The group members must make their own choices.
Sociometry is one of the few techniques today that allows. Determine the hidden system of interpersonal relationships. But the methods have limits of application that must be taken into account when studying a small group. Sociometry is constantly developing and improving. The development of sociometry is associated primarily with the improvement of the method of processing material and the procedure for collecting it.
Literature:
1. Psychological diagnostic methods. - M., 1993
2. Methods of socio-psychological diagnostics of individuals and groups.- M., 1990 research………………….. 5. “Archival method" psychological research ...
Classification methods psychological research, proposed by Boris Gerasimovich Ananyev
Abstract >> Psychology... methods research. 1. Expand the classification methods psychological research, proposed by Boris Gerasimovich Ananyev. Classification methods 1. Organizational methods: comparative method, -are compared which... Main difference sociometry from...
Sociometry experimental method and social science
Abstract >> Psychology... method social psychological research, sociometry. These three areas are reflected in terms and definitions sociometry, which emphasized the connection research...phenomena. (Sociometric study). Sociometry How method, like notes, is...
Psychological aspects of self-determination and professional choice of a young man
Abstract >> PsychologyTheir subsequent interpretation. Specifics of the experiment How method psychological research is that in... and introspection; experimental methods; psychodiagnostic methods(tests, questionnaires, surveys, sociometry, interview and conversation); ...
Sociometric technique, developed by J. Moreno, is used to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations in order to change, improve and improve them. With the help of sociometry, one can study the typology of social behavior of people in group activities and judge the socio-psychological compatibility of members of specific groups.
A sociometric procedure may aim to:
a) degree measurement cohesion-disunity in a group;
b) identification of “sociometric positions”, i.e. the relative authority of group members according to characteristics likes and dislikes, where the “leader” of the group and the “rejected” are at the extreme poles;
c) detection of intragroup subsystems, cohesive formations, which may have their own informal leaders at their head.
The use of sociometry makes it possible to measure the authority of formal and informal leaders to regroup people in teams so as to reduce tension in the team that arises due to the mutual hostility of some group members. The sociometric technique is carried out using a group method; its implementation does not require much time (up to 15 minutes). It is very useful in applied research, especially in work to improve relationships in a team. But it is not a radical way to resolve intra-group problems, the causes of which should be sought not in the likes and dislikes of group members, but in deeper sources.
The reliability of the procedure depends primarily on the correct selection of sociometry criteria, which is dictated by the research program and preliminary acquaintance with the specifics of the group.
Sociometric procedure
The general scheme of actions for sociometric research is as follows. After setting the research objectives and selecting measurement objects, the main hypotheses and provisions regarding possible criteria for surveying group members are formulated. There cannot be complete anonymity here, otherwise sociometry will be ineffective. The experimenter’s requirement to reveal their likes and dislikes often causes internal difficulties among the respondents and manifests itself in some people in their reluctance to participate in the survey. When sociometric questions or criteria are selected, they are recorded on a special card or offered orally in an interview style. Each member of the group is obliged to answer them, choosing certain members of the group depending on their greater or lesser inclination, their preference over others, likes or, conversely, antipathies, trust or distrust, etc.
Group members are asked to answer questions that make it possible to discover their likes and dislikes one to one, towards leaders, group members whom the group does not accept. The researcher reads out two questions: a) and b) and gives the test subjects the following instructions: “Write on the pieces of paper under number 1 the name of the group member whom you would choose first, under number 2 who would you choose if there were no first, under the number 3 who would you choose if there were no first and second.” Then the researcher reads out a question about personal relationships and also gives instructions.
In order to confirm the reliability of the answers, the study can be conducted in a group several times. For repeated research, other questions are taken.
Sample questions for studying business relationships
1. a) which of your comrades from the group would you ask, if necessary, to provide help in preparing for classes (first, second, third)?
b) which of your comrades from the group would you like to ask, if necessary, to provide you with help in preparing for classes?
2. a) with whom would you go on a long business trip?
b) Which member of your group would you not take on a business trip?
3. a) which of the group members will better perform the functions of a leader (headman, trade union leader, etc.)?
b) which of the group members will find it difficult to fulfill the responsibilities of a leader?
Examples of questions for studied personal relationships
1. a) Who in your group would you turn to for advice in a difficult life situation?
b) with whom from the group would you like to consult about anything?
2. a) if all the members of your group lived in a dormitory, which of them would you like to live in the same room with?
b) if your entire group were reorganized, which of its members would you not want to keep in your group?
3. a) who from the group would you invite to your birthday?
b) who from the group would you not like to see at your birthday?
In this case, the sociometric procedure can be carried out in two forms. The first option is a nonparametric procedure. In this case, the subject is asked to answer the questions of the sociometric card without limiting the number of choices of the subject. If there are, say, 12 people in a group, then in this case each of the respondents can choose 11 people (except himself). Thus, the theoretically possible number of choices made by each group member towards other group members in the above example will be equal to (N-1), where N is the number of group members. In the same way, the theoretically possible number of choices received by a subject in a group will be equal to (N-1). Let us immediately understand that the indicated value (N-1) of the resulting elections is the main quantitative constant of sociometric measurements. In a nonparametric procedure, this theoretical constant is the same for both the individual making the choice and for any individual who is the object of the choice. The advantage of this version of the procedure is that it allows us to identify the so-called emotional expansiveness of each group member and to make a snapshot of the diversity of interpersonal connections in the group structure. However, when the group size increases to 12-16 people, these connections become so numerous that it becomes very difficult to analyze them without the use of computer technology.
Another disadvantage of the nonparametric procedure is the high probability of obtaining a random selection. Some subjects, guided by personal motives, often write in Questionnaires: “I choose everyone.” It is clear that such an answer can have only two explanations: either the subject really has developed such a generalized amorphous and undifferentiated system of relationships with others (which is unlikely), or the subject deliberately gives a false answer, hiding behind formal loyalty to others and to the experimenter (which is most likely) .
Analysis of such cases has led some researchers to try to change the very procedure for applying the Method and thus reduce the likelihood of random selection. This is how the second option was born: a parametric Procedure with a limited number of choices. The subjects are asked to choose a strictly fixed number from all members of the group. For example, in a group of 25 people, everyone is asked to choose only 4 or 5 people. The magnitude of the limitation on the number of sociometric elections is called the “sociometric limitation” or “election limit.” Many researchers believe that the introduction of a “sociometric constraint” significantly exceeds the reliability of sociometric data and facilitates statistical processing of the material. From a psychological point of view, sociometric limitation forces subjects to be more attentive to their answers, to choose to answer only those group members who really correspond to the proposed roles of partner, leader or comrade in joint activities. The election limit significantly reduces the likelihood of random responses and makes it possible to standardize election conditions in groups of different sizes in one sample, which makes it possible to compare material across different groups.
Currently, it is generally accepted that for groups of 22-25 participants, the minimum value of the “sociometric constraint” should be chosen within 4-5 choices. A significant difference in the second version of the sociometric procedure is that the sociometric constant (N-1) is preserved only for the system of resulting elections (i.e., from group to participant). For a system of given choices (i.e., to a group from a participant), it is measured by a new value d (sociometric constraint). By introducing this value, it is possible to standardize the external conditions of elections in groups of different sizes. To do this, it is necessary to determine the value of d using the same probability of random selection for all groups. The formula for determining such a probability was proposed at one time by J. Moreno and E. Jennings: P(A)=d/(N-1), where P probability of a random event (A) of sociometric choice; N number of group members.
Typically, the value of P(A) is selected within the range of 0.20-0.30. Substituting these values into formula (1) to determine d with a known value N, we obtain the desired number of “sociometric restrictions” in the group chosen for measurements.
The disadvantage of the parametric procedure is the inability to reveal the diversity of relationships in a group. It is possible to identify only the most subjectively significant connections. As a result of this approach, the sociometric structure of the group will reflect only the most typical, “selected” communications. The introduction of a “sociometric limitation” does not allow us to judge the emotional expansiveness of group members.
A sociometric card or sociometric questionnaire is compiled at the final stage of program development. In it, each group member must indicate his attitude towards other group members according to selected criteria (for example, in terms of teamwork, participation in solving a business problem, leisure time, playing, etc.) The criteria are determined depending on the program of this study : whether relationships are studied in an industrial group, a leisure group, a temporary group or a stable group.
Sociometric card
When conducting a survey without limiting the choices, the sociometric card should have a column after each criterion, the size of which would allow one to give fairly complete answers. In a survey with limited elections, to the right of each criterion, as many vertical graphs are drawn on the card as the number of elections we expect to allow in this group. Determining the number of elections for groups of different sizes, but with a predetermined value of P(A) in the range of 0.14-0.25, can be done using a special table (see below).
Limitation values of sociometric choices
Sociometry results. Data processing
When the sociometric cards are filled out and collected, the stage of their mathematical processing begins. The simplest methods of quantitative processing are tabular, graphical and indexological.
Sociomatrix (table). First, you should build a simple sociomatrix. An example is given in the table (see below). The election results are distributed throughout the matrix using symbols. The results tables are filled out first, separately for business and personal relationships.
The surnames of all members of the group being studied are written down vertically behind the numbers; horizontally only their number. At the corresponding intersections, the numbers +1, +2, +3 indicate those whom each subject chose in the first, second, third place, and the numbers -1, -2, -3 those whom the subject does not choose in the first, second and third place. .
Mutual positive or negative choices are circled in the table (regardless of the order of choice). After the positive and negative elections are entered into the table, it is necessary to calculate vertically the algebraic sum of all elections received by each member of the group (sum of elections). Then you need to calculate the sum of points for each member of the group, taking into account that the choice in the first place is equal to +3 points (-3), in the second - +2 (-2), in the third - +1 (-1). After this, the total algebraic sum is calculated, which determines the status in the group.
| № | Surname | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| 1 | Ivanov | +1 | +2 | +3 | -1 | ||||||
| 2 | Petrov | +1 | +3 | +2 | |||||||
| 3 | Sidorov | -1 | +1 | +2 | +3 | ||||||
| 4 | Danilova | +2 | +1 | +3 | |||||||
| 5 | Alexandrova | +2 | +1 | +3 | -3 | -2 | |||||
| 6 | Adamenko | ||||||||||
| 7 | Petrenko | +1 | +3 | ||||||||
| 8 | Kozachenko | +1 | +3 | +2 | |||||||
| 9 | Yakovleva | +2 | +1 | +3 | -1 | ||||||
| 10 | Shumskaya | +2 | +1 | +3 | -1 | ||||||
| Number of elections | |||||||||||
| Number of points | |||||||||||
| Total amount |
Note: + positive choice; - negative choice.
Analysis of the sociomatrix for each criterion gives a fairly clear picture of the relationships in the group. Summary sociomatrices can be constructed that give a picture of elections based on several criteria, as well as sociomatrices based on data from intergroup elections. The main advantage of the sociomatrix is the ability to present elections in numerical form, which in turn allows you to rank group members according to the number of elections received and given, and to establish the order of influences in the group. Based on the sociomatrix, a sociogram map of sociometric elections (sociometric map) is constructed.
Sociogram
Sociogram graphic representation of the reaction of subjects to each other when answering a sociometric criterion. A sociogram allows you to make a comparative analysis of the structure of relationships in a group in space on a certain plane (“shield”) using special signs (Fig. below). It gives a clear idea of the intra-group differentiation of group members based on their status (popularity). An example of a sociogram (map of group differentiation) proposed by Y. Kolominsky, see below:
> positive one-sided choice,
<>positive mutual choice,
------> negative unilateral choice,
<------>negative mutual choice.
The sociogram technique is a significant addition to the tabular approach in the analysis of sociometric material, because it allows for a deeper qualitative description and visual representation of group phenomena.
Sociogram analysis consists of finding the central, most influential members, then mutual pairs and groupings. Groups are made up of interconnected individuals who seek to choose each other. Most often in sociometric measurements there are positive groups of 2, 3 members, less often of 4 or more members.
Sociometric indices
There are personal sociometric indices (PSI) and group sociometric indices (GSI). The first characterize the individual socio-psychological properties of a person in the role of a member of a group. The latter provide numerical characteristics of the holistic sociometric configuration of choices in the group. They describe the properties of group communication structures. The main P.S.I. are: index of sociometric status of the i-member; emotional expansiveness of the j-member, volume, intensity and concentration of interaction of the ij-member. The characters i and j represent the same person, but in different roles; i chosen, j also chooser, ij combination of roles.
The I-member of the group is determined by the formula:
where C i sociometric status of the i-member, R + and R - the elections received by the i-member, Z the sign of the algebraic summation of the number of received elections of the i-member, N the number of group members.
Sociometric status is the property of a person as an element of a sociometric structure to occupy a certain spatial position (locus) in it, that is, to relate in a certain way to other elements. This property is developed unevenly among the elements of the group structure and for comparative purposes can be measured by a number and an index of sociometric status.
Elements of sociometric structure are individuals, members of a group. Each of them, to one degree or another, interacts with each other, communicates, directly exchanges information, etc. At the same time, each member of the group, being part of the whole (group), influences the properties of the whole with their behavior. The implementation of this influence occurs through various socio-psychological forms of mutual influence. The subjective measure of this influence is emphasized by the magnitude of sociometric status. But a person can influence others in two ways - either positively or negatively. Therefore, it is customary to talk about positive and negative status. Status also measures a person's potential leadership ability. To calculate sociometric status, you need to use sociomatrix data.
It is also possible to calculate C-positive and C-negative status in small groups (N).
The J-group member is calculated using the formula
where Ej emotional expansiveness of the j-member, R j choices made by the member (+, -). From a psychological point of view, the indicator of expansiveness characterizes the individual’s need for communication.
From G.S.I. the most important are: Index emotional expansiveness of the group and the index of psychological reciprocity.
Group Emotional Expansiveness Index calculated by the formula:
where Ag group expansiveness, N number of group members? R j (+,-) choices made by the j-member. The index shows the average activity of the group when solving a sociometric test task (per each group member).
Psychological Reciprocity Index (“group cohesion”) in a group is calculated using the formula
:
where Gg reciprocity in the group based on the results of positive elections, A ij + the number of positive mutual connections in the group N the number of group members.
Literature:
1. Methods of psychological diagnostics. - M., 1993
2. Methods of socio-psychological diagnostics of individuals and groups. - M., 1990
Sociometric method
Sociometric method is a method of collecting primary social information about interpersonal relationships in small social groups.
The term “sociometry” is derived from two Latin roots: socius - comrade, companion, accomplice and metrim - measurement. This term was first used at the end of the 19th century.
The sociometric method allows you to solve two important problems: firstly, it is used to study interpersonal and intergroup relations with the aim of improving and improving them. Secondly, it allows the sociologist to study the structure of small social groups. This especially applies to the study of informal relationships.
Since the sociometric method is used to study interpersonal relationships in small social groups, it is necessary to clarify this concept. Under"small social group"is understood as a real existing formation in which people are brought together, united by some common characteristic, a type of joint activity, or placed in some identical conditions, circumstances, and in a certain way are aware of their belonging to this formation.
Based on practical research, the optimal size of a small social group is considered to be 12-15 people.
For the analysis and interpretation of sociometry results, the type of group in which the research is conducted is of great importance.
In this case, a distinction is made between “membership group" And " referential» group. The first of them unites people formally included in it; the second – those who collectively create a “significant social circle”. In addition, there is a distinction between the so-called “diffuse"group (relationships between group members are built on the principle of sympathy and antipathy), "association"(the basis of relationships is the pursuit of purely personal goals), "corporation"(pursuit of antisocial goals) and "team"(a combination of achieving both personal and social goals of activity.
The procedure of the method under consideration is based onsociometric survey. And the essence of the procedure itself is the calculation of personal and group sociometric indices.
Long-term practice of sociological research has made it possible to develop a system of requirements for conducting a sociometric survey:
1. A sociometric survey can be conducted in groups whose members have at least 6 months of experience in joint activities.
2. The selected criterion by which the survey is conducted must be clearly perceived and understood by all members of the group.
3. The survey must be conducted by a third party.
4. The number of sociometric criteria should not exceed 8-10.
The sociometric survey procedure itself consists of several phases.
1. Preparatory phase:
a) definition of the problem, research objectives;
b) selection of the research object;
c) obtaining information about the members of the group, about the group itself.
2. Sociometric warm-up phase.
a) establishing contact with the group;
b) psychological preparation for interviewing group members;
c) determining the content of the sociometric criterion.
3. The actual survey phase.
a) briefing respondents;
b) replication and distribution of sociometric cards;
c) filling out cards by the respondent;
d) collection of sociometric cards.
4. Processing phase.
a) processing of received information;
b) checking data for reliability and validity.
5. The final phase.
a) formulation of conclusions;
The basis of the content of the sociometric map is a set of criteria, which are questions, the answers to which serve as the basis for establishing an informal structure in the group. The choice of criteria should be determined by the objectives of the study. Like the questionnaire questions, the criteria in their structure and form must meet general requirements. At the same time, they must meet specific requirements, namely:
1. The content of the sociometric criterion should reflect the relationships between group members.
2. The criterion should reproduce the situation of choosing a partner.
3. The criterion should not limit the possibilities of choice.
4. The criteria used must be significant for the group being studied.
5. The criterion must describe a specific situation.
When studying small social groups in the field of physical education, questions such as: “Who from the team would you prefer to spend your free time with?”, “Who would you like to live in the same room with when staying at training camps?”, “Who would you like to live with?” wanted to practice technical actions during training?”, “Who in your opinion could replace the coach in a lesson in his absence,” etc. The given examples of criteria can also be formulated in a negative form. For example, “Who would you like to spend your free time with?”
A sociometric procedure in which the respondent selects, in accordance with a given criterion, as many individuals as he considers necessary is callednonparametric. This option allows you to identify the emotional component of relationships and show the diversity of interpersonal connections in the group.
The parametric procedure involves a choice with a predetermined number of restrictions.
During a sociometric survey, each respondent is given a questionnaire and a list of group members, whose names, for convenience, are coded by number in the group list.
The map may look like this:
The survey results are entered into a sociomatrix, where “+” means a positive choice, “-“ means a negative choice, and “O” means no choice.
Table 2 shows the results of a sociometric survey of 8 group members.
Table 2
Results of the sociometric survey
|
Who chooses |
Who is chosen |
Total |
||||||||||
|
Total: |
||||||||||||
Through transformation, logical and numerical analysis, relationships in the team are clarified.
One of the most common methods for analyzing sociometric information is the graphical method. A graphical representation of the results is called a sociogram.
Sociogramis a schematic representation of the reactions of the subjects expressed to each other when responding to a sociometric criterion.
When constructing a sociogram, the following symbolism is used:
A ¾¾¾ B - positive choice
A- - - - B - negative choice
A ¾¾¾ B - positive mutual choice
A - - - - B – negative mutual choice
The quantitative characteristics of interpersonal relationships that meet the criteria are sociometric indices (coefficients), divided into individual and group.
Let us give examples of the calculation of some of them.
1. Sociometric status, reflecting the attitude of group members towards each of its representatives.
With i = number of elections received
N – 1
Sociometric status has positive and negative options. In this case, the numerator respectively indicates the number of positive and negative choices (C i + ; C i –).
2. Emotional Expansiveness Indexcharacterizing a person’s attitude towards group members.
E i = number of votes cast
N – 1
Similar to the first index, positive and negative expansiveness indices are introduced (E i – ; E i +).
3. Group index of sociometric coherence, characterizing the measure of connectedness of a group according to a selected criterion, without taking into account the directional sign.
K = number of choices given (received)
N (N – 1)
4. Group reciprocity index
G= number of mutual positive connections
N (N – 1)
Analysis of the values of various sociometric indices gives an idea of the structure of a small social group.
Regarding, for example, the practice of sports, it is extremely important for a coach to know the group status of an individual or the position in the team of each of its members. What determines this importance? Firstly, the place that the athlete occupies in the structure of the group from the point of view of interpersonal preferences, sympathy - antipathy, leadership. In addition, the subjective factor is of no small importance - the internal position, largely determined by the self-esteem of the individual.
Self-esteem reflects what an athlete sees in himself compared to what is valuable to him and the team. Its significance is very great. Too high or too low self-esteem can become a source of internal conflict.
Among other things, knowledge of the degree of organization of the team will allow the coach to correctly allocate forces when achieving sports goals; it is possible to solve or instruct athletes to independently complete this or that task, identify their organizational abilities, and establish mutual assistance and understanding.
The use of the sociometric method allows one to gain knowledge about intra-collective relationships, which will help the coach in organizing the educational process and solving training and competitive problems. The presence of microgroups, their structure and leaders, and ways to establish positive relationships in the team are revealed.
As a result, the coach receives information on several positions:
|
a) athlete about himself b) partners about the athlete c) coach about the athlete |
d) athlete about coach; e) the athlete about his partners. |
Concept of Sociometry………………………………………………………2
Sociometric theses……………………………………………………..4
Sociometric survey: essence and implementation features…………...9
Methods of Sociometry……………………………………………………….10
Prospects for the development and application of sociometric methods…………18
Conclusion. Conclusions………………………………………………………23
References……………………………………………………………..24
Sociometry concept
The term “sociometry” comes from the Latin societas (society) and metrium.
Measuring – denotes 1. a branch of social psychology and sociology that studies interpersonal relationships in small groups using quantitative methods with an emphasis on studying likes and dislikes within the group, 2. an applied direction, including the study, improvement and use of appropriate tools for solving practical problems.
The purpose of sociometric research may be the following questions:
measuring the degree of cohesion - exposure;
detection of intragroup subsystems.
Sociometry measures the authority of formal and informal leaders to regroup people in teams so as to reduce tension in the team. The sociometry method does not require a lot of time - no more than 15 minutes, and it allows you to determine the popularity - unpopularity of group members, reveal the informal structure of the group, and evaluate the behavior of people in collective work.
The reliability of the sociometric procedure depends on the correct choice of criteria and assessment of the intragroup climate. The general scheme of sociometric research is as follows. After setting the research objectives, the main hypotheses and provisions regarding possible criteria for surveying group members are formulated. During sociometry there cannot be complete anonymity. Questions are written on a card or asked orally. The subject is required to answer questions based on his own likes - antipathies, trust or distrust.
In the process of sociometry, so-called “sociometric surveys” are used. A sociometric survey differs from a regular survey, because in it, instead of a sign, as in a regular survey, the answer is the surname or the number under which the surname is encrypted. In a regular survey, after processing the material, respondents are distributed according to this characteristic; in a sociometric survey, a structure of relations in the studied set is created. Therefore, when processing sociometric data, methods characteristic of conventional surveys are not used. The results of sociometry and the information obtained during the study are presented in special forms: sociograms and sociomatrix.
The sociometric procedure can be carried out in two versions.
Nonparametric procedure
With a nonparametric procedure, the subject is unlimited in the number of choices and can write down all members of the group on the card. In this case, the number of elections is N – 11, where N is the number of people in the group. Similarly, each group member will be selected N – 1 number of times. The nonparametric procedure allows us to fully assess the emotional expansiveness of each group member and see the diversity of intragroup interpersonal connections. But the use of a nonparametric procedure will be irrational in relation to larger groups, since processing the results will be impossible without the use of computer technology. Also, another disadvantage of the nonparametric procedure is the high probability of random selection, because answers like “I choose everyone” are possible. In this case, we can talk either about an undifferentiated system of relations between the subject and other members of the group, or about a deliberately false answer from the respondent.
Parametric procedure
The parametric procedure is characterized by limiting the number of answers, thereby reducing the possibility of random selection. The subject can choose only a strictly limited number of people. The limitation on the number of elections is called the “sociometric limitation” or “election limit.” The introduction of a sociometric limitation makes it possible to increase the reliability of the study and facilitate the processing of the material. On the other hand, such a limitation forces subjects to take their answers more seriously and carefully, to choose only those people who they really consider suitable for the role proposed in the survey. Limiting the number of selections allows results to be standardized and data obtained across different groups to be compared. But the parametric procedure has its drawbacks: it does not allow revealing all the diversity of relationships in a group, but shows only subjectively significant connections.
Questions can be sociometric or autosociometric. In autosociometric surveys, it is proposed to assess which of the group members will choose a given respondent or to predict how certain group members will answer or how they will choose each other.
The type of question should correspond to the characteristic that is intended to be investigated. It is necessary that the question be specific, that is, when asking “Who would you choose to spend your free time with?” it is necessary to clarify exactly how they will spend their time: going on a camping trip, visiting a cinema, and so on.
Sociometric theses
All people are connected to each other. Humanity is an organic unity that has its own structure. Among all the structures and relationships that form social reality, sociometric (a continuous self-deepening process of spontaneous choices and rejections) sooner or later determines all the others: social, economic, political, psychological and others. It contains the most powerful energy of all changes. The more the sociometric structure and the society that includes it differ from each other, the stronger the general social and psychological tension of a given society (community) in a given situation.
The reality of any person is always subjective. From such realities a social reality is formed, which can only be known by those who are included in it. A researcher, consultant, therapist or experimenter must be immersed in the reality of the group (individual) with whom he works and become part of it for some time. You cannot conduct an experiment on people; you need to work with the most relevant content for them, their spontaneous choice.
The sociometric method is a situational instrument (on the conventional scale of psychological methods it will be the “most projective”, sociological - the most “qualitative” (“soft”, “weakly formalized”). However, this method cannot be considered either psychological or sociological, since it is applied to a unique and inimitable situation. The sociometric method: (1) diagnoses, searches for what is most relevant for a given group (client), constantly tunes in to this reality, focuses on the concentration of the entire life presented by the client (group) (2) tests any concepts for reality; , brought into the sociometric situation by all its participants, including the sociometrist, or sociodramatist (for example, “people”, “democratic”, “leader”, “cohesion”, “friendship”, etc. At the same time, it contributes to the birth and). concretizing the meanings of “here”, situational concepts that are relevant for all those present and concentrating their reality; 3) outlines the boundaries of the situation (its qualitative certainty: how much and where “here” and when “now”), the boundaries of the contract. Thus, the result is of a qualitative nature, which cannot be used correctly without immersion in the situation. This is a narrative, a picture that reflects the full cycle of a social phenomenon from the locus nascendi (place of birth).
4. The unevenness of elections in any group and in each situation cannot be eliminated. Each situation, each group has its own sociodynamics: its own “stars” and outcasts, leaders and those deprived of reciprocity. True sociometry shows not only the amount of attention to the individual (who exactly) and his expansiveness (his attention), but also the full reality of the measurement situation: where exactly, when exactly, what is the direction of this cohesion (to whom, against or for whom, to what) . At all times, under any system, there are rejected and neglected individuals and groups - Moreno calls them the “sociometric proletariat” - ultimately they suffer from economic, political, racial, religious, psychological poverty (see:). Revolutions, modernizations and other social changes, which, as a rule, are carried out for the sake of those in need, in fact only exacerbate the contradictions between leaders and outcasts, between the extremes in each of us: “the world, others need me more than I need them” and “ I need others more than they need me.”
5. Sociometry as a process initiates sociodrama, otherwise it remains only an incomplete diagnosis - these are two sides of any group process, dialectically connected. Sociometry is not so much an answer to the question: why do people act this way and not otherwise, choose those and not others, but rather the possibility of joint action, co-organization of all “who”. Moren’s sociometry is immersed in all the relationships of all participants (and characters in the sociodrama), and one could easily “drown” in all this if it were not for the principle of qualitative life completeness, which requires not only the completeness of all connections and events, but also artistic truth, concentrated by the group itself. The drama must represent the entire life cycle of a phenomenon (organization) - from its birth to social death.
6. All social structures develop sociogenetically. Sociometric methods make it possible to see the rudimentary structures of relations of a previous formation (organization) and the embryonic structures of a possible future formation (organization) - all of them act simultaneously and can resist both change and conservation. Sociometry can not only see this, but also influence development. But sociometry does not affirm or impose values, does not evaluate. It can help the manifestation of real feelings, a look at ourselves and at us (our “we”) from the outside and much more, but it does not reconcile people for the sake of peace itself. It makes relationships realistic and open. The results of a sociometric experiment must ultimately benefit its participants and the group as a whole.
The term "sociometry" means the measurement of interpersonal relationships in a group. It is no coincidence that the founder of sociometry, the famous American psychiatrist and social psychologist J. Moreno, called this method that way. The totality of interpersonal relationships in a group constitutes, according to J. Moreno, that primary socio-psychological structure, the characteristics of which largely determine not only the holistic characteristics of the group, but also the mental state of a person.
The introduction of this method into the research of Soviet psychologists is associated with the names of E.S. Kuzmina, Ya.L. Kolominsky, V.A. Yadova, I.P. Volkova and others.
Sociometric technique is used to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations in order to change, improve and improve them. With the help of sociometry, one can study the typology of social behavior of people in group activities and judge the socio-psychological compatibility of members of specific groups.
Along with the official or formal structure of communication, reflecting the rational, normative, obligatory side of human relationships, in any social group there is always a psychological structure of an unofficial or informal order, which is formed as a system of interpersonal relationships, likes and dislikes. The features of such a structure largely depend on the value orientations of the participants, their perception and understanding of each other, mutual assessments and self-esteem. As a rule, several informal structures arise in a group, for example, structures of mutual support, mutual influence, popularity, prestige, leadership, etc. The informal structure depends on the formal structure of the group to the extent that individuals subordinate their behavior to the goals and objectives of joint activities, the rules of role interactions. With the help of sociometry, this influence can be assessed. Sociometric methods make it possible to express intragroup relations in the form of numerical values and graphs and thus obtain valuable information about the state of the group.
For sociometric research, it is important that any structure of an informal nature, whether we want it or not, is always projected in one way or another onto the formal structure, i.e. on the system of business, official relations, and thereby influenced the cohesion of the team and its productivity. These provisions have been verified by experiment and practice.
The most general task of sociometry is the study of the informal structural aspect of a social group and the psychological atmosphere prevailing in it.
Sociometric procedure
The general scheme of actions for sociometric research is as follows. After setting the research objectives and selecting measurement objects, the main hypotheses and provisions regarding possible criteria for surveying group members are formulated. There cannot be complete anonymity here, otherwise sociometry will be ineffective. The experimenter’s requirement to reveal their likes and dislikes often causes internal difficulties among the respondents and manifests itself in some people in their reluctance to participate in the survey. When sociometric questions or criteria are selected, they are recorded on a special card or offered orally in an interview style. Each member of the group is obliged to answer them, choosing certain members of the group depending on their greater or lesser inclination, their preference over others, likes or, conversely, antipathies, trust or distrust, etc.
In this case, the sociometric procedure can be carried out in two forms. The first option is a nonparametric procedure. In this case, the subject is asked to answer questions on a sociometric card without limiting the number of choices the subject can make. If there are, say, 12 people in a group, then in this case each of the respondents can choose 11 people (except himself). Thus, the theoretically possible number of choices made by each group member towards other group members in the above example will be equal to (N-1), where N is the number of group members. In the same way, the theoretically possible number of choices received by a subject in a group will be equal to (N-1). The indicated value (N-1) of the resulting selections is the main quantitative constant of sociometric measurements. In a nonparametric procedure, this theoretical constant is the same for both the individual making the choice and for any individual who is the object of the choice. The advantage of this version of the procedure is that it allows us to identify the so-called emotional expansiveness of each group member and to make a snapshot of the diversity of interpersonal connections in the group structure. However, when the group size increases to 12-16 people, these connections become so numerous that it is very difficult to analyze them without the use of computer technology.
Another disadvantage of the nonparametric procedure is the high probability of obtaining a random selection. Some subjects, guided by personal motives, often write in questionnaires: “I choose everyone.” It is clear that such an answer can have only two explanations: either the subject really has developed such a generalized amorphous and undifferentiated system of relationships with others (which is unlikely), or the subject deliberately gives a false answer, hiding behind formal loyalty to others and to the experimenter (which is most likely) .
Analysis of such cases has led some researchers to try to change the very procedure for applying the method and thus reduce the likelihood of random selection. This is how the second option was born - a parametric procedure with a limited number of choices. The subjects are asked to choose a strictly fixed number from all members of the group. For example, in a group of 25 people, everyone is asked to choose only 4 or 5 people. The magnitude of the limitation on the number of sociometric elections is called the “sociometric limitation” or “election limit.”
Many researchers believe that the introduction of a “sociometric constraint” significantly exceeds the reliability of sociometric data and facilitates statistical processing of the material. From a psychological point of view, sociometric limitation forces subjects to be more attentive to their answers, to choose to answer only those group members who really correspond to the proposed roles of partner, leader or comrade in joint activities. The election limit significantly reduces the likelihood of random responses and makes it possible to standardize election conditions in groups of different sizes in one sample, which makes it possible to compare material across different groups.
Currently, it is generally accepted that for groups of 22-25 participants, the minimum value of the “sociometric constraint” should be chosen within 4-5 choices. A significant difference in the second version of the sociometric procedure is that the sociometric constant (N-1) is preserved only for the system of resulting elections (i.e. from group to participant). For a system of given choices (i.e., to a group from a participant), it is measured by a new value d (sociometric constraint). By introducing the value and it is possible to standardize the external conditions of elections in groups of different sizes. To do this, it is necessary to determine the value of d using the same probability of random selection for all groups. The formula for determining such a probability was proposed at one time by J. Moreno and E. Jennings:
where P is the probability of a random event (A) of sociometric choice; N is the number of group members.
Typically, the value of P(A) is selected within the range of 0.20-0.30. Substituting these values into formula (1) to determine d with a known value N, we obtain the desired number of “sociometric restrictions” in the group chosen for measurements.
The disadvantage of the parametric procedure is the inability to reveal the diversity of relationships in a group. It is possible to identify only the most subjectively significant connections. As a result of this approach, the sociometric structure of the group will reflect only the most typical, “selected” communications. The introduction of a “sociometric limitation” does not allow us to judge the emotional expansiveness of group members.
A sociometric procedure may aim to:
a) measuring the degree of cohesion - disunity in the group;
b) identification of “sociometric positions”, i.e. the relative authority of group members on the basis of sympathy and antipathy, where the “leader” of the group and the “rejected” are at the extreme poles;
c) detection of intragroup subsystems, cohesive formations, which may have their own informal leaders at their head.
A sociometric card or sociometric questionnaire is compiled at the final stage of program development. In it, each group member must indicate his attitude towards other group members according to selected criteria (for example, in terms of teamwork, participation in solving a business problem, leisure time, playing a game, etc.). The criteria are determined depending on the program of the study: whether relationships are studied in an industrial group, a leisure group, a temporary or stable group.
When conducting a survey without limiting the choices, the sociometric card should have a column after each criterion, the size of which would allow one to give fairly complete answers. In a survey with limited elections, to the right of each criterion, as many vertical graphs are drawn on the card as the number of elections we expect to allow in this group. Determining the number of elections for groups of different sizes, with a predetermined value of P(A) in the range of 0.14-0.25, can be done using a special table (see table “Values of limitation of sociometric elections”).
When the sociometric cards are filled out and collected, the stage of their mathematical processing begins. The simplest methods of quantitative processing are tabular, graphical and indexological.
